The Imperial Federation

[k-onmmunist]

THE IMPERIAL FEDERATION

THE BEGINNING OF THE FEDERATION: 1919-1927

Although the Treaty of Versailles had ended the Great War, many were soon disillusioned by what they saw as a failure. Even Marshal Foch thought that another war would break out in 20 years. In Italy, the common people were angry with their politicians; they felt the bloodshed had not been worth the miniscule quantity of territory that Italy gained from participating. In Germany, many felt the treaty had been too harsh, and had humiliated them. Soviet Russia, meanwhile, was an unknown force; only time could tell how it would approach the world.

The first heartbeats of the Federation was probably with the foundation of the Imperial Movement in November 1919, which sought that the British Empire be run locally by parliaments while all the nations in it would convene at a united parliament for important affairs; war, treaties, trade etc. The movement believed that the British Empire would inevitably fall apart unless people within it were able to have some sort of self-governance while still owing allegiance to the King in London.

The movement grew rapidly, especially within the Liberal Party. It’s growth was helped by the perceived failure of the League of Nations; the USA had not joined as a member, and seeing as it appeared to be the Americans who were the future leading power in the world, it would be useless without them.

More and more MPs turned to the movement, both in Britain and in the Dominions. It’s birth can be said to have been on February 22nd 1921 when the Imperial Duties Act was passed in the British Parliament. Lloyd George had been forced by pressure within his own party to make such a move; if he didn’t, he could well be deposed at the next election. The act heavily increased duties on non-Empire goods. It was hoped that the dominions would respond positively to this move.

On March 7th 1921, King George V met with Canadian Prime Minister Arthur Meighen and asked him to put forward a similar act before the Canadian Parliament. Although Meighen believed in free trade, he knew that the act could benefit Canada greatly. He reluctantly abandoned his ideals and put the act before Parliament. By August, this pattern had emerged in every dominion.

Despite Lloyd George’s reservations, the act paid off and played a major role in his re-election victory in 1922. But then, a new challenge appeared to Lloyd George in the form of Ireland.

The Anglo-Irish Treaty was ratified in the same year, granting the Irish their own state; the Irish Free State. W.T Cosgrave became the first prime minister of the new state. However, Britain still kept a great measure of control over the Irish via the treaty; the Southern Ports were allowed to be used by British naval craft and Cosgrave had to accept the Imperial Duties Act. Ulster was also retained as part of the UK.

Nevertheless, the next Imperial Duties Act in 1923, restricted outside trade even more. This had a detrimental effect on the Irish economy and threatened to exacerbate anti-British sentiment in Ireland. However, the alternate road was one of economic isolation. Ireland, and the other dominions accepted the Act within the year.

Lloyd George finally retired in 1924, and a general election was called once more. Despite the Liberal’s popularity, the Conservatives, led by Stanley Baldwin won the election. Baldwin disliked the idea of the Federation, but he was the head of a minority government; he knew that if he tried to destroy the Federation, a Liberal-Labour coalition would defeat him at the next election. His situation was not helped by members of his own party, such as Winston Churchill, who loudly favoured the idea and could ditch him if he repealed the Duties Acts.

The Imperial Federation Act was brought before parliament on March 8th 1925. This was the act that would form the Imperial Federation. It was simultaneously brought before the Parliaments of every other dominion. The entire spring and summer was spent debating this piece of legislation until finally, the act was passed on September 8th 1925. Newfoundland, under heavy influence from the UK passed it on the 22nd.

Other dominions were less sure of the act. Prime Minister Mackenzie King, who had only recently come to power in Canada, called for a referendum on the act to be held in January 1926. Other countries simply debated the act in their own parliaments, including Australia, which narrowly passed the act on December 27th 1925 and New Zealand the next day.

The referendum in Canada resulted in a huge victory for the Federationists. 69% voted yes to the act and 26% no. Most of the opposition came from Franco-Canadians; Indeed, Quebec was the only state where the act did not receive a majority. On January 28th 1926, Canada passed the act.

This left Ireland and South Africa, who were far less enthusiastic about the Act. In Ireland, a deadlock had been reached over the Act. Fianna Fail, led by Eamon de Valera, vehemently opposed the act. Nevertheless, their opinions were thrust aside, and on March 1st 1926, Ireland reluctantly signed the act.

South Africa was led by James Barry Hertzog, an Afrikaner who despised Britain. This meant he did not look kindly upon the act. He announced that the National Party would oppose it in March, and was supported in this by the South African Labour Party. Only the South African Party, led by Jan Smuts, supported the Federation. As a result, Hertzog called a referendum in which federationism was defeated, despite gaining 44% of the vote. Hertzog rejected the Act on June 17th. This caused a crisis; some in the Dominions parliaments did not think it was a wise idea to start the Federation without South Africa.

Nevertheless, the show had to go on, and on September 1st 1926, King George V announced that the Federation would be formed on January 1st 1927, no matter what the South Africans thought. This went through, and on that day, the Federation was formed, and the first meeting was held in London.

[k-onmmunist]

THE PARLIAMENT OF THE FEDERATION AND THE FIRST ELECTION RESULTS: 1927

The Parliament was created on the same day as the Federation, and began its duties immediately. It ran along the lines of representatives, much like Members of Parliament. These were usually influential MPs from the main parties in that country’s parliament. However, a major point of contention was the fact that the head of government did not get an obligatory seat, and so might not appear at the Parliament. This became an early point of reform for the Parliament.

The head of the Imperial Federation was King George V, who was recognised by all states as the ruler of the Federation. The parliament had no head of government at the time. The seats were arranged not in the traditional opposition layout of the British Parliament, but instead in the newer hemicycle pattern. How seats were assigned by nationality became very controversial.

The seats were officially dispersed by ‘influence’. Britain, as the originator of the Empire, got 50 seats, the most of any countries in the Parliament. Canada and Australia both received 25. Ireland was given 15. The smaller and younger states of New Zealand and Newfoundland were allocated 10. Many Indians were angered that they were given no representation at the parliament, although they were officially represented by Britain.

‘Imperial Elections’ would determine the party, which would gain the most seats. They were shared out by percentage from the votes. At first there was no electoral pattern. Every country held its first elections on February 1st 1927, apart from Ireland, which held them on the 22nd.

The results of these elections are shown below:

BRITAIN
Labour Party – 23 seats
Conservative Party – 20 seats
Liberal Party – 6 seats
Independent – 1 seat

AUSTRALIA
Labor Party – 11 seats
Nationalist Party – 11 seats
Country Party – 3 seats

CANADA
Liberal Party – 14 seats
Conservative Party – 5 seats
United Farmers of Alberta – 3 seats
Progressives – 3 seats

IRELAND
Cummann na nGaedhael – 8 seats
Fianna Fail – 7 seats

NEW ZEALAND
Reform Party – 5 seats
United Party – 5 seats

NEWFOUNDLAND
United Newfoundland Party – 10 seats

[k-onmmunist]

THE FEDERATION EMERGES: 1927-1930

One of the chief areas of concern early on, for the Imperial Parliament was India. India had been given limited autonomy in 1919, as a diarchy, but this had disappointing results. By mandate of the king, the Imperial Federation Committee for the Self Determination of India (IMCOMIND) was established on March 5th 1927. This would play a key role in the politics of India over the next few years. The committee immediately set to work investigating the best course of action to be taken regarding Indian participation in the Federation. They were aided in this course by the election in November of the Labour party, who wanted to increase Indian autonomy. Ramsay MacDonald, the new prime minister, awaited the results of the investigation with interest.

The final product of this investigation was the draft of an act. This came to be known as the Government of India Act, 1928, and was put before the British and Imperial Parliaments on September 2nd 1928. The act aimed to give India representation in the Federation, and more autonomy. India would be granted 5 seats and would recruit a small army, to be known as the Royal Indian Defence Force (RIDF).

Conservative opinion was firmly against the act. When the act was sent to the House of Lords, they rejected it and this greatly concerned supporters of the act. Much to their disgust, a watered down version was put before Parliament in November, which would grant India 3 seats. It also removed any reference to an independent Indian army. The Westminster Parliament approved it and the Imperial Parliament voted to pass it, 86-49 on December 16th. And so it was that on Christmas Day 1928, the first Indian Imperial MPs took their seats in London.

More trouble had been brewing from opponents of the Federation. In October 1927, Prime Minister Hertzog of South Africa called for the Imperial Duties Acts to be repealed, although he failed to win much support for this. The Dail Eireann, the Irish Parliament, also saw a desperate gambit by Fianna Fail to pull Ireland out of the Federation in May 1928. This was squarely defeated.

But Hertzog had sealed his fate. On March 5th 1929, Hertzog raised a debate about the Federation. He did not expect what was to happen next. Jan Smuts began a scathing attack on Hertzog’s ‘myopic’ foreign policy, and was joined in this by many members of Hertzog’s own National Party. A good deal of them crossed the floor against him.

Two days later, shaken by the opposition, Hertzog called for a vote of confidence. He narrowly achieved a majority in his favour, but nevertheless felt that his position was in danger, and called for elections in October. In the election, Hertzog failed to win much support, and he was defeated by a South African Party-Labour Coalition. Jan Smuts became the new prime minister. In March 1st 1930, South Africa (having been granted 15 seats) was welcomed into the Imperial Federation.

By this time, two coalitions had formed in the Parliament. The Conservative Bloc, formed in December 1928 was made up of the right wing parties in the Parliament, while the Liberal Group, formed in June 1929, supported liberal ideals.

But it is now time to leave the Empire for a moment, to look at events worldwide…

[k-onmmunist]

AROUND THE WORLD: 1919-1930

Bitterness returned to the world after the 'failed' treaty was signed. Many countries felt their demands had not been satisfied and that they had been 'betrayed'. This feeling was especially prevalent in Italy, and it led to the demise of democratic government. Just a year after the treaty was signed, 1920, King Victor Emmanuel faced a coup d'etat led by Gabriele d'Annunzio which deposed him. The king without a kingdom fled to Austria, where he spent his final days until he died in 1944.

D'Annunzio immediately began a program of eroding Italy's democracy, and refused to call general elections. He also expanded Italy's army and navy. But all this was useless without having an actual enemy, and in 1924, the Albanian crisis broke out. D'Annunzio landed forces along the Albanian coast and even managed to seize the town of Vlore. However, Britain and France stood up to the Italians, and after 2 months of tense negotiation, Italy withdrew, humiliated. D'Annunzio was left to lick his wounds and make concillatory actions towards the dissapointed Italian people.

Japan also saw similar events. Several prime ministers reigned over the country, only to resign or be overthrown by the military. This pattern finally ended in 1929 when armed men broke into the office of Prime Minister Kiyoura Keigo and gunned him down. This may have been linked to the Prime Ministers plans to disarm bigger ships in the Navy, which was seen as a humiliation, but abided by international treaties Japan had signed.

Soviet Russia also took little action, with an internal power struggle leading to Trotsky becoming leader of the nation. For now, he looked westwards at the baltic states and Poland, coveting land for a larger Soviet Union.

In the USA, President Dawes, who became leader after Harding's sudden death in 1921, had ushered in a era of prosperity for America. He had not, however, made any moves to repeal prohibition, and was seen as soft abroad, where he urged that America should gain the friendship of Germany to ensure their own borders and that they would be able to stay out of foreign entanglements. Dawes was also incensed by the Imperial Federation which had done a good deal of damage to American businesses in the Empire. Nonetheless, when Dawes stepped down in 1929, he left a rich happy America, to be governed by his successor, Frank Lowden.

France saw a series of weak governments after Clemenceau's electoral defeat. This chain finally ended with the election of Aristide Briand in 1927 who promised to secure France's place in Europe. He did this by signing non aggression pacts with Italy and Germany who he saw as dangerous to France's future.

In Germany itself, a similiar situation occurred. No particular government was able to make an impact. Nevertheless, Germany's situation improved dramatically in the 1920's and Germany was soon on the path to becoming the industrial and financial heartland of Europe.

All this was cast aside in 1930...

[k-onmmunist]

BLACK FEBRUARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES: 1930-1931

The stock market finally ended its gradual rise on February 17th 1930. Over the next five days, the situation got worse and worse. The public panicked and many shares were sold, which only exacerbated the already bad situation. It was also not helped by America's high tariffs. By October, Dow Jones was down to just 20 points, one of its lowest recordings since the 19th century. The fallout was devastating, not just in the USA but around the world.

In Germany, the economy was largely built on American loans. As a result, when this support was removed, the economy fell crashing down to the floor. Extremist parties gained far more of a following, with the Communist and National Socialists both making huge gains in that years elections. von Hindenburg, who had become President in 1926, declared martial law, and ordered the army to shoot down troublemakers. For the next few years, Hindenburg was more or less the dictator of Germany.

Italy hadnt escaped either. It's already fragile economy took a major blow, and voices calling for more extreme policies grew louder. D'Annunzio was forced to take a more assertive foreign policy, which resulted in a brief border war with Yugoslavia. It was clear that Italy had now been completely radicalised.

France's government, under Briand, collapsed because of the shock, and he was replaced with a right wing coalition led by Pierre Laval.

However, the Imperial Federation had not suffered as much as these countries. Out of the nations in the Federation, Canada took the worst hit, losing 20% of its GNP. Britain, Ireland and Australia also went through a small recession due to the crash. New Zealand was hardly affected at all, and South Africa was completely untouched, due to its isolation from other countries.

The Soviet Union also took little damage, as it had barely any trade relations with the outside world. Instead, the Soviet economy continued to grow, although collectivisation was limiting what progress could be made.

For Japan, however, this crash was the final blow to any political freedom in the nation. The military now exercised complete power, and begun planning to take Manchuria, rich in raw materials such as bauxite and coal.

The ultimate effect was the end of America's economic dominance of the world. It was now clear that New York would be superseded by London as the leading stock market in the world.

[k-onmmunist]

EVENTS IN THE FEDERATION AND THE CRISIS IN IRELAND: 1930-1932

Ever since its foundation, elections to the Imperial Parliament had been confusing and the schedule did not exist for them. Countries could hold them at different times. This was reorganised by the Imperial Election Act which set elections at January 1st 1931, and every three years afterwards.

The Emerald Isle was now going through a recession due to the crash, although this would be short-lived. This convinced Cosgrave even further that Ireland must remain in the Federation. However, in the 1930 election, Cummann na nGaedhael was defeated by de Valera’s Fianna Fail. The main reason for this was due to the recession, but de Valera decided to cut off his nose to spite his face. On November 15th, he demoted Ireland’s status in the Federation to ‘associate’ and repealed the Imperial Election Act. The fallout didn’t take long.

The Irish economy suffered even more, and de Valera became extremely unpopular for his policies. He called for a referendum on status in the Imperial Federation, which the Federationists won with 79% on January 14th 1931. De Valera resigned the next day. In the following election, Fianna Fail lost power and Cummann na nGaedhael were returned to power.

It was now decided that the Imperial Federation needed reform. But before we look at this, we must take a closer look at Japanese actions in China.

[k-onmmunist]

MANCHURIA IS CONQUERED: 1931-1932

On October 17th 1931, a fleet of ships was spotted off the coast of Lushun (Port Arthur). It was not long before the ships hit the beaches, and a huge mass of men scrambled out. These were marines of the Japanese Army, who had been tasked to take the key port for the Emperor and for Japan. They sweeped the city clean of resistance within a week.

At the same time, Japanese forces moved along the South Manchuria Railway towards Harbin and Changchun. Chinese resistance was scattered and ineffective, although the Chinese were not undetermined to defend their country. By the end of October, Manchuria had more or less submitted to the Japanese.

Immediately, this action sparked protest around the world. Frantic meetings were held in the League of Nations, where Japan was told it could not simply take Manchuria. Japan ignored the complaints of the League, and snubbed it by suspending its membership indefinitely on 12th December 1931.

In the Imperial Parliament, this also caused some panic. Australia and New Zealand were particularly frightened by the idea of Japan having an empire. They lobbied the Parliament for some sort of aid, some sort of resistance to Japanese aggression. Canada also, was concerned. Britain and South Africa regarded the situation with little but empty condemnations. Ireland, still an associate and thus little more than an observer, looked on without interest. The situation caused flaming rows in the Parliament, with Australia and New Zealand attacking British laxness over Japan. Finally, Britain agreed to transfer several light cruisers to the two nations over the next five years to strengthen their navies.

Nevertheless, little more than condemnation was given to Japan. The situation quickly lost attention as political crises in Germany and Italian military action took precedence.

[k-onmmunist]

ITALIAN AGGRESSION IN ALBANIA: 1932

D’Annunzio had been watching events in Asia with an interested eye. After the League failed to stand up to Japan, why should they stand up to Italy? He immediately began to order forces to prepare an invasion of Albania.

On February 4th 1932, Italian troops landed on the beaches of Albania. The Albanian army made a poor show, and was unable to stop the Italians taking Tirana and cutting their supply. In a week, the campaign was over. The Albanian government fled the country.

The League of Nations once again took a weak stance, and condemned the Italian action. The Imperial Federation did the same, but also announced restrictions on trade with Italy, which would last until Italian forces had left Albania. This made it much harder and more expensive for Empire businesses to work in Italy.

By this time, many were criticising the Leagues pathetic response to aggression: Winston Churchill being one of the main critics. As more and more countries resorted to conflict, it was clear that the movement to stop them would grow. But in 1932, another event was to happen that would have an important impact on the federation…

[k-onmmunist]

REFORM OF THE IMPERIAL FEDERATION: 1932

Since it is founding, many had argued that the Imperial Federation needed to be reformed in some way. Many said that the Federation needed its own head of government to play some part in the running of the organisation. It was also argued that heads of government should have their own reserved seats. Thus, the Imperial Reform Act was put before Parliament in April of that year.

It was also joined by the Representation Act. For quite a time, politicians had been concerned that India could easily end up with 3 Hindus or 3 Muslims on all their seats. Therefore, this would grant at least one seat to a Hindu and one to a Muslim. Smaller changes were also made, but these were largely trivial.

In July, after 3 months of debate, the Reform act was signed by every state in the Federation except Ireland. The Representation Act was also signed a few days later, and both became official Federation law in August of the same year.

Meanwhile, in Ireland, the economic crisis had hit the country hard for its relatively weak economy. Cosgrave, now back in power, knew that if Ireland’s economy were to flourish, it would need help from the Empire, and so on October 30th 1932, Ireland rejoined the Imperial Federation as a full member. Ireland also promised to pass the Imperial Reform Act, although this was not actually done until 1941.

Perhaps the biggest reform was the creation of the position Chairman of the Federation. The first elections for this esteemed post would be held in December 1933. Both coalitions had already decided to participate as single parties for this election, which meant there would be two candidates. We shall return to this later, but first we must look at the deteriorating situation in China, and the spark that led to war in the Far East.

[k-onmmunist]

JAPAN ATTACKS CHINA: 1933-1934

On June 1st 1933, Japan wrote a communiqué to its ambassadors in several countries, lambasting Chinese ‘terrorism’. In the document, Japan accused Chinese guerrillas of destroying Japanese railways in Korea and Manchuria and said that these were ‘acting with the consent of the government’. Just a few hours later, while it was still dark, Japanese foot soldiers struck into the Jehol, and landed near Shanghai and Wenzhou. The Second Sino-Japanese war had begun.

China was largely unprepared; Kai-Shek had been too busy fighting warlords in Xibei San Ma and Yunnan to pay much attention to the Japanese threat, however serious it was. Consequently, when the Japanese did strike, the Chinese forces were unprepared and Peking was taken within the month. What happened next ushered in a new age of warfare.

On June 8th, Japanese bombers appeared over Guangzhou. Tons of bombs were dropped on the city, some of them incendiary. The city was alight, and thousands of civilians died. The actions were captured in newsreels of the time; dead bodies littering the city, refugees flooding the roads to escape from the chaos, ruins. All of these shocked an unprepared western audience.

But the action did not go ignored. The USA issued a statement of protest on June 2nd, as did the Imperial Federation. The latter, however, called an emergency conference for June 5th, and it was here that a more punishing line of action was adopted. The Federation agreed to place an embargo on Japan by a vote of 147-6. Japan still traded a significant quantity of goods with the Federation, so this was a blow to the economy. It further incensed Japan’s military rulers who began planning reprisal. To add insult to the injury, the Federation agreed to give monetary and military aid to China, the former via the Conversions Act (a piece of legislation that allowed China to trade for British weapons in its own money, rather than the pound sterling) and the latter via the new Lashio Road. The road funnelled supplies into China and proved to be the lifeblood of the Chinese military.

Other countries did not leave China unaided either. Trotsky had long been worried about Japanese militarism, and at this point he decided they had gone too far. The Soviet Union began supplying weapons and industrial supplies to China for very cheap prices. He also ordered the mobilisation of the Far Eastern Military District, but gave it strict orders not to attack. Nevertheless, this worried the Japanese who were forced to keep some forces along the borders with Russia and Mongolia.

Volunteers also flocked to the Chinese ranks, many of them Americans and Germans. The latter continued to aid China by training their army; Hindenburg, who by now had emergency powers and was practically dictator of Germany, saw a potential ally in the Chinese. The League took its usual course of action, but by this point, they were largely ignored.

The military campaign in China continued to favour the Japanese however. By the beginning of 1934, the Japanese had secured almost all of China’s coastline, as well as a frontline stretching from the island of Hainan, to the pivotal point at Changsha, and up to Xian. The Chinese soon took up defences in this area, and the Japanese were unable to advance any further. They had already been slowed by the Chinese blowing up their own dams and now they were unable to break through, and they were facing Partisan uprisings around the country. Japan switched to new tactics, trying to break Chinese morale. This involved brutal tactics such as murder, strategic bombing and atrocities. But this backfired, and actually encouraged the Chinese to fight on, knowing that if they surrendered, they would be given no quarter.

[k-onmmunist]

AUTONOMY FOR INDIA: 1933-1934

With the Far East turning alight, several Indian and British politicians put the most radical Government of India act yet before the parliament. It proposed an Indian Assembly would have some say in the governing of the country, although they would mainly be consulted for advice and approval. India would gain two more seats at the Imperial Parliament. In addition, at the behest of the British section involved in drawing up the act, Burma was to be separated from India and ran separately. Most importantly, Indians would be allowed, for the first time, to elect local officials.

The act was highly controversial. Many British members did not want to see India, the jewel in the crown, taken even more from British control. There was also the issue of Burma. Who would govern it now? Would it have seats at the Imperial Parliament? This issue also pressed hard upon the Parliament.

Through negotiation, the conservatives managed to obtain several amendments to the act that made it less damaging. The biggest change was that the Indian Assembly would be formed, but would only be able to give advice and was little more than an observer in what actually happened. But, India managed to make gains elsewhere. Instead of getting 5 seats, they managed to wind up with 8, which nearly put them at equal with New Zealand, part of the White Commonwealth. Burma was granted a single seat, after much debate, which would be occupied by the Governor appointed from London.

The act was finally approved in May 1934. It was a major step in Indian autonomy, although some of the more radical Indian politicians such as Mahatma Gandhi were disappointed. Gandhi was hoping for an independent India, but it was clear that India would probably only gain such independence slowly, and even then would probably remain in the Imperial Federation. Despite his hunger strikes and the Salt March he made in 1932, it was a fact that Indian independence still looked very distant.

[k-onmmunist]

EGYPTIAN INDEPENDENCE: 1918-1934

In Egypt, Britain faced a daunting challenge. Many Egyptians were nationalists and wanted to be rid of the British. Britain knew that if it wanted to keep any control over Egypt, they would either have to fight a bloody guerrilla war, or they could grant Egypt more autonomy. Wisely, the latter was chosen. In September 1924, Egypt was granted independence and was given control over almost all territory it claimed, apart from the Sudan, which it governed with the British and the Suez Canal which remained the site of a British garrison. King Fuad assumed power over Egypt.

Nevertheless, the new king struggled with his prime ministers. His constant attempts to interfere in parliament, and change the constitution increased anger towards him. In the elections of 1926, the Wafd party, a nationalist anti-royalist party won the majority of the seats. Fuad attempted to annul the election results, and Britain, seeing the nation fall apart, decided to step in. In 1927, Britain landed a division at Alexandria, and began a march on Cairo. The king was shocked at this action, and nearly abdicated. Instead, he signed a new constitution, which took more powers away from the king.

He needn’t have bothered interfering in the election, for afterwards, the Wafd party began to wane in popularity, and in 1930, the king was able to call an election which the Wafd Party lost to the Ittihad Party, which was pro-royalist. Britain began making moves towards making Egypt a dominion; after all, India was on that path which didn’t make it unique. In 1931, Egypt applied for membership in the Federation despite the Wafd Party’s loud protests. In 1933, this was approved and Egypt took its place in London with 2 seats (increased to 5 after the Representation Act was signed by Egypt). Egypt was able to participate in the first elections for Chairman of the Federation.

Although there would be many challenges to Egyptian membership from anti-Royalist parties, it was hoped that Egypt could be kept in the Federation by the economic boom it would produce.

[k-onmmunist]

IMPERIAL GENERAL ELECTION OF 1934 PART 1 - CANDIDATES AND POSITIONS: 1933

The parties that participated in the Election of 1934 all had different aims and different positions. At the outset of the election, both coalitions, and a few non-associated parties all searched for a candidate.

The Conservative Bloc found this candidate in the form of Winston Spencer Churchill. Churchill had called for a tougher stance on Japanese and Italian violations of treaties, and he had called for rearmament. Once considered a radical, and even a warmonger, he was now seen as correct by many. Churchill campaigned on a position of a more centralised empire, a tougher stance on aggression and a beginning to rearmament. He was also opposed to giving the Indians any more autonomy.

The Liberal Group found its own leader. Jack Lang, an Australian Labor Party politician, widely considered a radical for his economic policies which defied those of the government. Many liberals had little hope in Lang and some liberal parties even crossed the floor against him. From the beginning, Lang didn’t get any advantage.

Then there were the third parties. Fianna Fail was running, for example, alone with Eamon de Valera as its candidate. De Valera attempted to try and create an anti-federationist alliance with the Egyptians and some of the Indians, but this fell through because of his insistence on him being leader of the alliance. This was also weakened by the ‘abstentionist’ parties, who refused to take their seats at parliament, and thus could not argue in favour of their arguments.

Nationality also decided many of the issues. Churchill managed to alienate the Indians by refusing to grant them any more autonomy, and was also reluctant to negotiate with republican Irish parties. Lang, meanwhile, had such outlandish policies that the moderates, who would be vital to any victory, were sent into the arms of the Conservatives.

It would be an interesting election, and would certainly reveal many strengths and weaknesses of the Federation.

[k-onmmunist]

IMPERIAL GENERAL ELECTION OF 1934 PART 2 – THE ELECTION: 1933-1934

His mind was like a kind of extinct sulphur pit
-Winston Churchill on Jack Lang

Election debates began on November 30th 1933. Winston Churchill immediately went on the attack, criticising his opponents policies; he said in his first speech, pointedly ‘Is this a man you would trust with the Federation?’ Lang retaliated by accusing Churchill of being an enemy of the workers and a warmonger.

The MPs were encouraged to ask the candidates questions, and one of the main points was trade. Lang argued that tariffs needed to be higher to protect the Federation from being overrun by ‘Johnny Foreigners’ and their companies. Churchill defended the current tariff level and said that raising the tariffs any higher would be detrimental to both Britain and her allies.

Churchill sought the support of British political parties in particular, because he knew that they would make a huge difference to the results. The Conservatives and Liberals both supported him. Labour, which had recently lost office to Stanley Baldwin’s conservatives, was unsure. The National Liberals supported Lang because of his position on trade.

Another issue was Japan and Italy’s unprovoked aggression against China and Albania. Lang argued that a deal should be struck with the Soviets to counter their ambitions. Churchill, ever the traditionalist, looked to France and the US for aid, should a war break out. Australia and New Zealand were far nearer to Japan than Britain was, and Churchill said that if elected he would encourage military support and sales to the two nations. This was the deciding factor for many parties there. India, though close to Japan, was more interested in its self-determination. In particular, Gandhi encouraged Indians to support Lang.

The final results were made public on January 1st 1934

[k-onmmunist]

UNITED KINGDOM: 50 Seats:
Conservatives – 22 seats
22 for Conservative Bloc
Labour – 19
13 for Conservative Bloc
6 for Liberal Group
Liberal – 7
6 for Conservative Bloc
1 for Liberal Group
National Liberal – 2
2 for Liberal Group

Total =
Conservative Bloc - 41
Liberal Group – 9

CANADA: 25 Seats:
Conservatives – 14 seats
14 for Conservative Bloc
Liberals – 11 seats
9 for Conservative Bloc
2 for Liberal Group

Total =
Conservative Bloc – 23
Liberal Group – 2

AUSTRALIA: 25 Seats:
Labor – 13 seats
13 for Liberal Group
United Australia – 8 seats
8 for Conservative Bloc
Country Party – 3 seats
3 for Conservative Bloc

Total =
Conservative Bloc – 11
Liberal Group – 13

SOUTH AFRICA: 15 Seats:
South African Party – 10 seats
10 for Conservative Bloc
National Party – 4 seats
3 for Afrikaner Movement
1 for Liberal Group
Labor Party – 1 seat
1 for Afrikaner Movement

Total =
Afrikaner Movement – 4
Conservative Bloc – 10
Liberal Group – 1

IRELAND: 15 Seats:
Cumann Na nGaedhael – 8 seats
3 for Conservative Bloc
3 for United Irish Republic Alliance
2 for Liberal Group
Fianna Fail – 7 seats
6 for United Irish Republic Alliance
1 for Conservative Bloc

Total =
Conservative Bloc – 4
Liberal Group – 2
United Irish Republic Alliance – 9

NEW ZEALAND: 10 Seats:
Labour – 8 seats
7 for Liberal Group
1 for Conservative Bloc
Reform – 2 seats
2 for Conservative Bloc

Total =
Conservative Bloc – 3
Liberal Group – 7

NEWFOUNDLAND: 10 Seats:
United Newfoundland Party – 10 seats
10 for Conservative Bloc

Total =
Conservative Bloc – 10

INDIA: 3 Seats:
Independents – 3
3 for Liberal Group

Total =
Liberal Group – 3

EGYPT: 2 Seats:
Wafd – 1
1 for Egyptian Independence Bloc
Ittihad – 1
1 for Liberal Group

RESULTS:
Conservative Bloc (Winston Churchill) – 102
(Wins constituent nations of United Kingdom, Canada, South Africa and Newfoundland)
Liberal Group (Jack Lang) – 38
(Wins constituent nations of India, Australia and New Zealand; tied in Egypt)
United Irish Republic Alliance (Eamon de Valera) – 9
(Wins constituent nation of Ireland)
Afrikaner Movement (James Barry Hertzog) – 4
Egyptian Independence Bloc (Saad Zaghlul) – 1
(Ties constituent nation of Egypt

Winston Churchill was victorious. He now prepared for his first 6 year term.

[k-onmmunist]

THE IMPERIAL SEARCH FOR ALLIES – MIDDLE EAST/AFRICA: 1934

One of Churchill’s first moves as Chairman was to make gestures of friendship towards states in Europe and Asia that could help Britain. Churchill knew it would be beneficial to have strong allies to aid in what he saw as the ‘inevitable war’ with Italy and/or Japan. He first went on a tour of the Middle East and Africa, to meet the leaders of the nations there that could give Britain valuable aid.

First on the list was Cairo. Churchill was worried about the lukewarm, and even hostile reception the Federation had received from the Egyptian public. Many Egyptian nationalists resented Britain and wanted Britain to cede the Suez Canal Zone and the Sudan to Egypt. And so, on April 18th 1934, Winston Churchill met with King Fuad I of Egypt. Fuad expressed concern over Italian actions, pointing out the weak dispositions of British forces, and the lack of an effective Egyptian Army. Most of the Egyptian Army was militia, and much of it was in the Sudan.

Churchill stayed in Egypt for 3 days, and in this time he managed to secure an Egyptian promise to support the Imperial Federation if Italy attacked. In return, Britain was to move station more troops in Alexandria, and would aid Egypt if attacked. Britain also promised to give Egypt more control over the Sudan, but it would remain under Anglo-Egyptian condominium.

Next on the list was Baghdad. The ailing king, Faisal, was far more obstinate. Iraq had only gained full independence in 1930, and even then, Britain continued to control many parts of Iraq including the oil. Faisal questioned Churchill as to why Iraq should help Britain fight a ‘European war’. For 2 days, Churchill argued with the king. Finally, on April 23rd, Churchill reached a small agreement, after gaining the consent of Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin. Britain would cede small parts of Kuwait, along the border to Iraq. In return, Iraq would give support to Britain, and would join the Federation as an associate member. The last point was argued especially fiercely, but was agreed in the end, in return for widening Iraq’s coastline on the Persian Gulf.

On April 24th, Churchill arrived in Riyadh to meet King ibn Saud of Nejd. Churchill aimed to settle the border disputes between Oman, Yemen and Nejd. It was hoped that this would keep Nejd from aiding the Italians. The meeting concluded happily, with Nejd agreeing to hold a conference with the two states shortly, to delineate the border.

The next day, Churchill flew to Taiz, and meet the Sultan of Oman, Taimur bin Feisal and the King of Yemen, Ahmad bin Yahya. Bin Feisal was enthusiastic; he still felt he owed the British for aiding his sultanate against an internal revolt in 1915-1920. Feisal promised to declare war on Italy if it attacked Britain, and even offered to send a regiment of cavalry to aid the British. Bin Yahya more lukewarm, but also offered support to the British.

The final stop was Addis Ababa. There, he met Emperor Haile Selassie who had recently gained power. Out of all the parties involved, Selassie was the most concerned about Italy. He asked for Britain to aid his country if it were attacked and also asked for modern equipment to train his army with. Churchill promised to aid Abyssinia in any way that he had in his power.

On May 1st 1934, Churchill returned home. Next, it was clear he would have to secure allies against Japan as well.

[k-onmmunist]

THE IMPERIAL SEARCH FOR ALLIES – ASIA: 1934

In October, Churchill once again set out, this time to Asia to recruit allies. He first arrived in Delhi, where he met Lords Linlithgow, the viceroy, King Inayatullah Khan of Afghanistan, Tribhuvan of Nepal and Ugyen Wangchuck of Bhutan. Linlithgow assured Churchill of India’s support for the Federation, and said it would stand by Britain.

Nepal also agreed to aid Britain, and promised to help defend India should it be attacked. Bhutan was far more reserved, saying only that it would give moral support to Britain. Inayatullah was disinterested, and was more concerned with internal unrest within his own country.

Churchill flew to Bangkok on the 18th, and met King Rama VIII of Siam. The meeting resulted in little apart from acknowledgement of Japanese aggression. Churchill flew onto China, where he met Chiang Kai-Shek. Kai-Shek was enthusiastic about fighting the Japanese, and asked for as much aid as possible to fight Japan.

Churchill returned home on 1st November 1934, and now decided to concentrate on the rearmament of the Imperial forces.

[k-onmmunist]

REARMING THE FEDERATION: 1934-1937

Churchill began pushing for rearmament almost from day one. He urged for the RAF to be expanded, and also spoke favourably of expanding the Fleet Air Arm, pointing out its significance against large navies. He also pointed out that the China Station of the Royal Navy would need expansion to combat the new Japanese battleships. Most of the station comprised of lighter ships, and it was argued that the Japanese fleet would be able to easily destroy the force.

Baldwin was reluctant, still trying to seek some sort of agreement with Italy and Japan. However, d’Annunzio’s increasingly volatile tone encouraged him to begin rearmament. Several older ships of the Royal Navy were refitted and new ships were launched, including the Royal Navy’s latest carrier, the Royal Oak. Parts of the home fleet were moved to the Mediterranean and Pacific.

The Fleet Air Arm was equipped with new Shark biplanes. The RAF itself gained several new plane designs, including the Supermarine Hydra, the RAF’s brand new single seat fighter. As well as this, a Supermarine Sea Hydra was designed for use with the Fleet Air Arm. As Italy grew more and more aggressive, production was increased, and by 1937, these were in significant numbers.

The Army also had a great overhaul. It was reorganised, with new tanks being added to infantry division as support. The army was also expanded, due to more and more recruits rallying to the flag.

But Britain was not the only country rearming. The entire federation began rearmament in some way. Canada took similar steps to Britain, including acquiring licensing rights for several British fighter aircraft so it could build its own force from scratch. Australia and New Zealand were both given new cruisers to bolster their navies. South Africa increased its army in size, and also made a promise to Britain to fight the Italians in Africa, should war break out. Egypt also recruited more men, worrying it was in imminent danger.

Perhaps the most worrying behaviour was displayed by Iraq. Faisal had died in 1935, and his son Ghazi became king. Ghazi was passionately nationalist and anti-British. He soon began recruiting a larger army, and also was believed to have held talks with the Italians, much to Britain’s fury.

By 1937, the Federation was at an acceptable level of military size and equipment, but had still not reached perfection. It was hoped that when the new equipment was first fired in anger, it would prove effective against the enemy.

[k-onmmunist]

THE USA: 1930-1937

The prime scapegoat for America’s economic meltdown was, of course, President Frank Lowden. Lowden knew that his chances of being re-elected were slim to nil. Lowden decided to repeal tariff legislation, but by now, the world economy was shattered and there was little money to be made. Lowden nevertheless, stood for re-election in 1932.

Running against him was Huey Long. Long promised to relieve the recession and to create new jobs. Despite Long’s radical views, he won the election and set about work trying to fix America’s economy. On winning, he redistributed rich money to benefit those hit worst by the Depression and raised taxes on corporations to a unprecedented high level. This caused much controversy, with many accusing him of communist sympathies.

Long also attempted to abolish the Federal Reserve System. He accused it of being responsible for the collapse of the American economy and were it not for the powers of the Senate, could easily have done so. For the rest of his term, he wrestled his points with Senate, but failed to relieve the Depression which he had promised to end. Instead, he had merely deprived the rich of their money, and created an angry voter bloc against him. And as the election drew near, a new crisis broke out.

Long was found to have bribed several officials for certain purposes in his election campaign. When Congress discovered this, several members, under oath, accused Long of bribery and called for his impeachment. A lengthy trial proceeded, which lasted several months in early 1936. Eventually, on May 25th, Long was acquitted, but nevertheless, his reputation was ruined. He lost the 1936 election to the Republican candidate, Arthur Vandenberg. Whether America could completely recover from the mismanagement of the 1930s was questionable.

[k-onmmunist]

THE FINAL MONTHS OF PEACE: January 1st 1937-November 17th 1937

As 1937 opened, most of the world was still at peace, apart from China and Japan. The Federation was still preparing for war. Most saw a war in 1937 as unlikely. Their expectations were about to be proven wrong.

On February 4th, Gabriele d’Annunzio spoke to a crowd in Naples. It was here that he levelled an astonishing accusation for the first time. He claimed that Greece was funding partisans in Albania, and was actively encouraging resistance to Italian rule there. He also accused the Greeks of moving warships around the Dodecanese. He told the crowd that if Greece failed to end its behaviour, Italy would be forced to ‘punish impudent Hellas’

The United Kingdom objected to this, and, in April, guaranteed Greek independence to deter Italian aggression. D’Annunzio was outraged. He accused the UK of ‘sponsoring piracy of the most brutal kind’. He also announced his patience was wearing thin with the Greeks, who had denied the claims and refused to cede any territory as ‘reparations’.

Stanley Baldwin met with Greek Prime Minister Themistoklis Sophoulis and d’Annunzio on August 15th 1937 and tried to bring about an agreement between the two men but according to Baldwin’s memoirs, ‘Annunzio (sic) was continuously obstructive. When faced with the threat of war, he was characteristically fatalist, and seemed to believe destiny had already granted him her approval’. Unbeknownst to Sophoulis and Baldwin, d’Annunzio had already prepared a war plan for the invasion of Greece.

By October, tensions were running high. Several MPs levelled accusations at Baldwin of being weak and failing to take a tough stance on Italy. He was reluctant to declare war. Finally, on October 29th, he resigned, saying he had no choice. Sir John Simon, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer, took power the next day and on November 6th, announced that if Italy invaded Greece, Britain would be at war. Simon contacted Leon Blum, the French prime minister, next. Simon was concerned that because a rift had formed between Britain and France, having begun in Laval’s premiership, France may stay neutral. Blum, after much procrastination, announced his support for the British position on November 10th and on the next day, Armistice Day ironically, extended his own guarantee to Greece. But d’Annunzio already had his mind set on conquest.

A last minute effort by President Vandenberg of the US to organise a peace conference in Zurich failed when d’Annunzio failed to arrive. On November 14th, Britain was put on a war footing, and Simon formed a war cabinet, which included the return of Anthony Eden to the Foreign Office. The next day, Churchill put forward a resolution before the Imperial Federation, suggesting each member break relations with Italy over the crisis.

Finally, on 17th November 1937, Italian mountain forces entered Greek territory and 19 years after the end of the first war, Europe was at war once again…

[k-onmmunist]

THE WORLD REACTS: 17th November 1937-20th November 1937

The Imperial Federation: Winston Churchill called an emergency meeting in London to discuss the Greek situation. At the beginning, he made a speech criticising Italy, and asking for all states in the Federation to declare war on Italy. He also announced that he had received a telephone call that morning informing him that Britain was already at war with Italy. Australia and Canada had already made similar declarations.

Within three days, the entire Federation had declared war on Italy, apart from Egypt, which only broke relations, and Iraq, which quit the Federation altogether. The latter’s actions caused much suspicion.

France: France also declared war on 17th November, and immediately begun mobilisation.

Germany: President Hindenburg announced neutrality.

USA: President Vandenberg declared neutrality, but also said he would be willing to mediate a ceasefire between the conflicting parties if asked.

Yugoslavia: Yugoslavia broke relations with Italy and mobilised its forces.

Other nations: Oman, Yemen and Nepal also declared war on Italy, while Bhutan severed relations. Switzerland announced neutrality, and warned that any soldiers entering its territory would be interned. Austria, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Sweden and Norway all announced their own neutrality.

[k-onmmunist]

THE FIRST ACTIONS AT SEA AND THE BATTLE OF OTRANTO: November 17th 1937-December 31st 1937

At the outset of the war, the Mediterranean Fleet began sailing towards the coast off Southern Italy, to disrupt Italy’s supplies. The Regia Marina knew this, and manoeuvred its ships to counteract this action.

First blood was drawn on the 21st November, when the HMS Talisman, a British destroyer of the class of the same name, was sunk by a group of Italian cruisers. For the next few days, neither side committed their forces to a large battle in the Mediterranean, instead preferring forays. Finally, on 4th December, several of the bigger ships of the Mediterranean fleet set out.

While moving around the straits of Otranto, they were encountered by an Italian heavy cruiser squadron, comprising of the Savoia, Bolzano and Perugia. These ships were protecting supplies to Albania, and consequently, to be used against Greece. Pitted against them was 4 British cruisers and 3 destroyers, the leader of which was the HMS Caledon. The Italian naval commander, di Rimini, could not see much of the squadron, and believed he was up against a weaker force.

The British ships opened fire, and for the next half an hour, shells were fired between each side with little or no effect. Then, 32 minutes into battle, the Perugia took a hit which took the engine out. More and more shells rained down on the hapless ship.

Rimini was now worried. He now saw that his forces were outgunned and outnumbered. He decided to fall back to a safe port. But, he instead fled with his flagship, the Savoia, and left the Bolzano to hold and buy time for the rest of the group. Meanwhile, Italian aircraft had now entered the fray, and began strafing the British squadron to draw them off. It was here that the HMS Stafford took a direct hit on a machine gun reel, which exploded. In minutes, the entire ship was alight, and sailors abandoned the ship.

Only this intervention saved the Bolzano from being sunk, but it did not save the Perugia. It was hit again, and this time, it turned, and sank. Many of the sailors drowned, while a few others were picked up later by Italian rescue ships.

Both sides now withdrew from battle. Otranto had been inconclusive, but it had certainly shown that British seapower was still alive. The Mediterranean fleet now took more precautions, and soon the mighty Royal Oak would arrive to support the forces in the Mediterranean.

[k-onmmunist]

ITALIAN INVASION OF EGYPT: November 17th 1937-December 20th 1937

On 19th November, Italian forces entered Egypt, and by the next day, had seized the small mud hut town of Sollum. Edmund Ironside, the commander of British forces in the Middle East, had already decided to pull back from the frontier and set up a new defensive line at Fuka. This meant that Sidi Barrani also fell without a shot being fired.

British forces in the area were weak. A single corps of three divisions were at Alexandria, while another division was at Suez, and another in Palestine. The Italians, under Bergonzoli, had 10 divisions. Ironside’s plan was to hold the line until the Australian and New Zealander forces arrived to reinforce him. Nevertheless, the Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers had lagged behind, and were still at Mersa Matruh when the Italians reached the town on November 28th. They faced a fierce onslaught, and on the 30th, became cut off from the other British forces. Ironside took a risk, and disregarding orders to stay put, launched an attack towards Mersa Matruh.

Evidently, the Italians had become overstretched. They were still being supplied from Tobruk, in Libya. Despite facing 5 divisions, Ironside’s single division managed to puncture a gap in the Italian lines, and force Bergonzoli to pull back several miles. On December 3rd, British forces met up with the Fusiliers once again. Nevertheless, the Italian offensive was restarted very soon, and it was now the British troops turn to be humbled. British forces withdrew from Mersa Matruh on the 8th, and were even beaten back from Fuka on the 13th. The Italians were now driving on El Alamein.

At this point, Egypt, under much British pressure, declared war on Italy. This added another 2 divisions to Ironside’s force, while a third was sent to the Sudan. Although the Egyptian forces were unexperienced, Ironside hoped to use his new numbers to his advantage.

On the 18th, Italian forces launched another attack towards El Alamein, but this time, failed to defeat the British. Ironside, now settled in for the winter and began devising plans of his own.

[k-onmmunist]

THE HORN OF AFRICA: November 17th 1937-December 31st 1937

The day after the war began, Italy executed its plan in East Africa. Italy invaded Abyssinia from Somalia and Eritrea. At the same time, Italian forces also entered British Somaliland and Djibouti. The Allies were taken by surprise. Most of the forces in East Africa were Kenyan and Sudanese colonials, who were not as well trained as British and Italian forces. The only British division was evacuated from Berbera in British Somaliland, as Italian forces entered the colony. French forces in Djibouti managed to hold parts of the capital.

By December, British forces had entered Abyssinia to defend it against further Italian advances. Much of the defensive terrain had already fallen to the Italians, although Addis Ababa was still in Allied hands. By the end of the month, the counterattack was already under way. Omani and British forces landed at Mogadishu, while the Kenyan colonials advanced into Italian Somalia. This took Graziani by surprise. He began to withdraw from much of Somalia, and decided to set up a new defensive line at Harar.

To divert British forces, Italian troops launched a small offensive into the Sudan towards Kassala. This was met by fierce resistance from Egyptian and Sudanese forces. Indeed, many Italian commanders were surprised at their courage and valour. They soon routed the lacklustre Italian offensive.

By this time, ANZAC troops were also arriving, and a South African division had already been fighting. It was no longer a matter of if Italian East Africa would fall, but when.

[k-onmmunist]

WAR IN NORTH AFRICA: December 20th 1937-April 1st 1938

The Imperial Federation had already begun planning a counterstroke across the Western Desert. Meanwhile, Italian forces launched their first attacks into French Tunisia, and by the new year, had defeated the French, who were now falling back to Algeria. Bergonzoli, overconfident in his triumph, attempted to assault Algeria itself, and his forces ended up in a fierce battle at Constantine. Soon, French tanks and infantry routed the Italian invaders, and Bergonzoli, after another offensive towards Bone, dug in.

By now, however, Australian, South African and New Zealander forces had arrived in Egypt, bringing the total strength to 9 divisions against Bergonzoli’s 13. A new offensive, Operation Sword, was launched on January 15th 1938, and quickly, the Italian lines shattered. At this point, The British also took another gamble. A division’s worth of troops were landed at Derna in Italian Libya. They took the town easily, but instead of striking out, were ordered to dig in and await the offensive from Egypt. This would prove to be a mistake.

Mersa Matruh fell to Federation forces on January 20th, followed by Sidi Barrani on the 26th. As the British forces approached Sollum, they soon ran into trouble. To breakthrough into Libya, they had to get through the Halfaya Pass, which was well fortified. Ironside threw all the force he could at the Pass, but with little result except high casualties. Meanwhile, the forces in Derna were being pushed closer and closer to the beaches once again.

Finally, Halfaya Pass was breached in March by a fierce Egyptian, Australian and British attack. Bardia soon fell on March 19th, and Tobruk was surrounded and captured on March 30th. The forces in Derna were able to break out, and in Algeria, British and Canadian forces were now assisting the French. The war was going grimly for the Italians, when astonishing news came from the Middle East…