Prime Ministers of New England (Rough Timeline)
Brother Jonathan:
I often wonder what an independent New England would look like. I suspect this interest started when I first read Walter Bagehot's The English Constitution in which he wrote the following:
"No one can doubt that the New England States, if they were a separate community, would have an education, a political capacity, and an intelligence such as the numerical majority of no people, equally numerous, has ever possessed. In a state of this sort, where all the community is fit to choose a sufficient legislature, it is possible, it is almost easy, to create that legislature. If the New England States possessed a cabinet government as a separate nation, they would be as renowned in the world for political sagacity as they now are for diffused happiness."
What follows is simply an attempt to thresh the idea out more. Perhaps one day I will try to better organize and polish it more, but for now, I just wanted to start with something of a rough draft of my idea. The point of divergence is the War of 1812, in particular the Treaty of Ghent. In this timeline, the war is even worse for the United States than in reality, and New England succession becomes much more widely accepted. Indeed, the Hartford Convention gains broad public support, and by 1814 New England is virtually in rebellion against the United States. When the United States sues for peace in 1814, New England is able to garner British support for succession, and New England is given independence as part of the Treaty of Ghent.
Prime Ministers of New England
Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem
1. Timothy Pickering (Tory), 1815-1819
Led the New England secession movement before independence and was instrumental in obtaining British support for the effort. Was present at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Ghent, where he further solidified ties with Britain by promising that an independent New England would support their cause in the Napoleonic Wars through both greater trade and even modest military assistance. New England's independence was thus included in the Treaty of Ghent at the insistence of the British, in exchange for an end to the War of 1812 and final fulfillment of terms of the Treaty of Paris. Pickering went on to unite the New England states in support of independence and became New England's first Prime Minister after he convinced the Constitutional Convention of 1814 to adopted a Westminister-style government.1
He invested in internal improvements, including vast road networks and several canals; moved the Capitol from Hartford (site of the Provisional Parliament) to Boston; built up the New England Navy, and aided Britain in War of the Seventh Coalition. He also suppressed the so-called "Democratic Rebellions" in the Northern New England wilderness with brutal force from 1816-1818. Negotiated and signed the Treaty of Rotterdam, settling the border between New England and Britain's North American colonies. As a signatory of the 1815 Treaty of Paris, he ended the Slave Trade in New England, and in 1817 abolished slavery totally.
His brutal suppression of the Democratic Rebellions caused a general loss of confidence in his government, and sensing that he had lost the confidence of the House of Commons Pickering resigned rather than face a vote to that effect. He became Protector of Liberties2 in 1820, succeeding John Adams (who was never fully comfortable with Independence and had opposed most of Pickering's agenda). Pickering died in 1829 and was succeeded as Protector of Liberties by John Quincy Adams.
1- The Constitution Act of 1814, which was passed by the Provisional (Hartford) Parliament was not, in fact, a Constitution. Pickering (among others) prevailed on the assembly not to pass a written Constitution, and instead to adhere to a British conception of the sovereignty of parliament, which became the basis of New England's government. Thus the Hartford Parliament passed the 1814 Act as a piece of normal legislation. Nevertheless, the 1814 act is generally considered something of a Constitution.
2- Protector of Liberties is the Head of State of New England, similar to the Crown in the United Kingdom or the Governor-General in Canada. However, the Protector of Liberties is rather weaker than these roles. They are elected by the Senate (which, in turn, they appoint on the advice of the Prime Minister) to serve for life or until resignation or removal.
2. John Lowell Jr. (Tory), 1819-1825
Lowell was a staunch ally of Prime Minister Pickering and continued his policies of close relations with Britain and support for trade and internal improvement. Under Lowell the New England Navy rapidly expanded, becoming one of the most formidable in the world. Lowell also adopted a more antagonistic attitude towards the United States, including the infamous Corn Tariff of 1822, which placed steep rates on imported grain from the United States. Increased prices in New England caused domestic unrest (which Lowell suppressed), and heightened tensions with the US. The 1823 Godspeed Incident, in which New England Naval vessels sunk what was believed to be an American grain smuggling boat, nearly led to war between the two countries which avoided thanks to the work of the Foreign Minister Harrison Gray Otis.
Lowell, like Pickering, was forced from office thanks to his repressive domestic policies and overly pro-British foreign policy. Most notably, the 1824 Commons Riot in Boston against the Corn Tariffs and an attempt to secure a "right of return" to the descendants of Loyalists who fled after the end of the American Revolution proved too much for even the hard-line Tories in the Commons. Thus, like Pickering, Lowell resigned as it was clear he had lost the support of his own party.
3. Harrison Gray Otis (Tory), 1825-1832
Otis was generally seen as the leading moderate Tory and was thus elevated to the office of Prime Minister with the hope that he would deescalate tensions with the United States and promote domestic harmony. Otis attempted to repeal the Corn Tariff in 1826, but facing backbench opposition opted instead simply to significantly lower the rate. His Tories were returned to office with a sizeable majority at the General Election later that year, and Otis used the enhanced mandate to pass the Civil Disturbance and Riot Act of 1827. The Act placed restrictions on the power of the Prime Minister to deploy troops domestically and established an organized police force for Boston.
Otis negotiated the 1828 Treaty of Albany with the United States, which included an official apology for the Godspeed Incident of 1823, and recognized the "shared heritage of New England and the United States". More substantively, the treaty finally settled both the land and nautical borders between the two nations and authorized the building of several canals connecting the two nations. The Treaty greatly improved New England's access to American markets and facilitated the inflow of raw materials from the United States into New England for manufacturing.
Otis oversaw the state visits of both United States President Andrew Jackson in 1831, the first visit of currently sitting American President to New England since Independence, and the 1832 visit of King William IV (the first visit of a British Monarch to New England). Otis expressed throughout his term of office a desire to pursue a "middle path" between the United States and Britain, expressing a desire to avoid domination by either, and pursued this policy by promoting extensive trade relations with both nations.
Otis retired in 1832 and was generally well regarded in most political circles. The Treaty of Albany, however, had weakened his support among the most fervently pro-British Tories, while the visit of William IV in 1832 shook the supporter of the already suspicious New England nationalist faction which felt the Tories had been too accommodating towards Britain. He is, however, generally well regarded by historians.
4. Josiah Quincy III (Tory), 1832-1839
Quincy sought to build on Otis's legacy, promoting internal improvements and domestic industry, making New England a major trading power. Quincy, however, was more pro-British than Otis and sought to use Britain as a bulwark against what he saw as growing American influence in New England.
Quincy's most lasting legacy is probably the Education Reform Act of 1835, which standardized the education system across New England along a basic structure, and provided funding for several institutions of higher learning. He also oversaw the passage of the Federal Reform Act of 1836 which clearly delineated which powers were to rest with the federal government and which were to rest with the states. The Act also established the State of Maine from Massachusetts Province of the same name.
Quincy's most controversial act was his decision to support Britain militarily during the Rebellions of 1837 in Lower and Upper Canada. The decision produced a domestic outcry, and there were minor rebellions in some rural northern areas and riots in several cities. Quincy saw the decision as crucial to reaffirming New England's close relationships with Britain. He further justified the action as protecting "New England's interests in our neighbor's field" and arguing that stable British control over Canada was in New England's interests. Quincy further earned much domestic opprobrium as a result of his tense relationship with US President John C. Calhoun, who he frequently criticized in public for his support of slavery.
The Tories were defeated rather decisively in the 1839 General Election, thanks in large part to the public outrage at Quincy's active support of British actions in Canada and souring relations with the United States.
The 1839 General Election
250 Seats in the New England House of Commons
126 Seats needed for a Majority
Whigs (Henry W. Edwards, MP for New Haven Green)- 173 Seats
Tories (Josiah Quincy III, MP for Cambridge North East)- 68 Seats
Radicals (no leader)- 8 Seats
Whig Majority of 96
So, that is what I have so far. I hope to continue updating this over time while getting feedback from others. I hope this thread can serve as a broader discussion of the potential direction of an independent New England under the circumstances described.
I would note the reason I am posting this here (rather than on a more general-purpose alternative history website) is that my primary interest here is the political development of New England. As interesting as it might be, I don't really want to get bogged down in what the flag looks like or what side of the road New Englanders drive on, or what the public broadcasting system is like. My interest in history is generally political and electoral, so that will be my focus. That being said, if it's generally felt this doesn't belong here, I will of course move it.
I will also say that there are several other points of divergence one could go with one discussing an independent New England scenario. One is that, after the revolution, a federal union is not created and so New England just develops over time into its own nation while the other states follow a similar trajectory. Another common one that I have seen is a situation in which the rift over slavery drives the northern states to secession. I am really not too fond of either of these scenarios, and I figured that the Hartford Convention and the general upheaval in New England around the War of 1812 would provide a fairly solid basis for secession. I would be interested to hear other thoughts on this.
One could argue that my scenario thus far does not take into account the potential for residual anti-British and pro-American sympathies (which I did incorporate to some extent in the Democratic Rebellions during Pickering's time in office, though they had a distinct catalyst), but I would note the whole point of divergence requires that pro-secession sentiment be high enough in New England that Pickering and others would be able to secure support for provisions in the Treaty of Ghent creating an independent New England in the first place, and that New England's separatists would have close enough ties with the British to entice them to include such provisions in the treaty in the first place. And, ultimately, this is an alternate history, and so it's really impossible to say what would have happened and I can always hide behind that.
Brother Jonathan:
5. Henry W. Edwards (Whig/National Whig), 1839-1847
Edwards entered office with a strong mandate, but faced internal divisions within the Whig party. He represented the more moderate Whigs who supported continued close relations with both Britain and the United States. Early in his term, Edwards was able to unify around the party behind the Electoral Reform Act of 1839 which expanded voting rights and reapportioned seats in a more representative fashion. He also finally repealed the Corn Tariff and moved New England toward a policy of free trade.
The Whigs became deeply fractured over the issue of New England's future relations with Britain. Edwards and his cabinet largely favored a moderately pro-British policy, while many more radical Whigs wanted a clear break with the policy of previous Tory governments. Three factions, Edwards's pro-British Whigs, a more pro-American faction led by Charles Atherton, and a nationalist faction led by the former Radical and then Whig MP Thomas Wilson Dorr, formed as the party became increasingly split. The fissures came to a head in 1842, when Edwards signed a treaty promoting naval cooperation with Britain, and which would see New England shipyards building British warships at a premium rate. Edwards justified the policy as a benefit to New England shipbuilders and the New England navy, but many within the Whig party rejected the treaty. Atherton and his more pro-American faction attacked it as a perversion of Whig free trade principles and for unduly alienating the United States, while Dorr attacked the treaty as a surrender to outside power and influence in the name of private gain and left the party with 28 other Whig MPs.
Not long after Dorr's defection and the establishment of the Dorrites, Atherton also left the party and became the leader of the Hillsborough Whigs, a group of pro-American, free trade-oriented Whigs with a strong base in New Hampshire. In total, some 73 Whigs left the party over the course of 1842-1843, and Edwards was left with a very tenuous majority. Following the general election of 1844, he lost his overall majority, but was able to form a government by winning the support of moderate Tories. Edwards reorganized his loyal supporters within the Whig party as the National Whigs, and managed to win a small majority at a snap election in 1845 on a platform of further tariff reform, naval expansion, and a modernization of New England's legal code. He died in office in 1847.
6. John P. Hale (National Whig), 1847-1850
Hale became Prime Minister on Edwards death, and was generally believed to be one of the few National Whig politicians who could hold the party together. Hale was forced to rely on moderate Tory support to keep his government in office, and sought to continue Edwards's program of tariff reform and modernization. His government passed the Inland Transportation Act of 1849, which drastically simplified the process for obtaining approval for canals, roads, and railways, and encouraged the development of such systems. Hale also succeeded in abolishing tariffs on most raw materials coming into New England from the United States, including coal and cotton.
In 1850, his National Whigs suffered a decisive blow as the Tories became the largest party in the House of Commons. Though the two parties still required one another's support to prevent the radicals from gaining power, the Tories insisted and were allowed to take the lead in forming the new ministry, though Hale was retained as Chancellor of the Reserves in the coalition.
7. John Brown Francis (Tory), 1850-1861
Francis sought to continue many of the programs of the National Whig government, most notably by supporting the construction of new railways and the further promotion of industrial development in New England. The legislative centerpiece of this effort was the Industries Act of 1852 and the Taxation Reform Act of 1853, which simplified the process of creating corporations, reduced remaining tariffs, and introduced limited duties on a variety of products.
Francis also sought to modernize the New England Navy, investing heavily in research and development, while also expanding the New England Army. He held talks with the British government about annexing parts of Canada, but was unable to make much progress. Francis was seen as the leader of a budding movement which sought to establish New England colonies abroad, though he and other leading Tories at the time denied they had any such intent.
Francis's government nearly collapsed in 1854 over the Crimean War, as Francis had strongly supported the British government and its allies in the run up to the war and argued forcefully that New England should join them in declaring war on Russia. Though lampooned by the opposition (and the American press), Francis was able to narrowly pass a declaration through and New England naval forces sailed to join with British forces in the campaign. The cabinet split over the issue of sending troops, which Francis supported, but ultimately it was decided that New England would participate only in naval operations, where it was felt it could make a difference. Francis articulated a vision of a more assertive and involved New England on the world stage, and he hoped to use New England's naval involvement in the Crimean War as a means of establishing the country's reputation on the world stage. New England diplomats played a role in the Congress of Paris, and Francis saw the entire adventure as a promising start to his project.
Domestically, successes in establishing New England on the world stage were not able to suppress mounting tensions over calls for electoral reform which would better recognize the interests of urban New Englanders. Francis and the Tories rejected such proposals, but increasingly their allies the National Whigs supported them. At the general election of 1856, Francis managed to ride the wave of press adulation over New England's enhanced standing in the world to a modest majority which did not require National Whig support, but the growth of more radical parties in the opposition was a sign of potential danger ahead.
Francis's final years in office were marked by the West Indies scandal, which saw his government buy the Danish West Indies with little notice in 1859 at a high rate as part of a first step towards a colonial presence in Central and South America. The newly reunited Whigs under Hale were critical of the deal on both moral and economic grounds, and public response was muted at best. Francis and his Tories lost the 1861 general election, and John P. Hale returned as Prime Minister at the head of a united Whig party.
8. John P. Hale (Whig), 1861-1867
With his return to office, Hale sought to enact a reform minded agenda which had not been possible when he had been forced to rely on Tory support. He passed the Reform Act of 1862 which made New England's election significantly more democratic, a modest land tax was introduced, and tariffs reduced further.
Hale was less successful in foreign policy than his predecessor, largely failing to undue his legacy. Hale failed to find a buyer at a suitable rate for the New England West Indies and rejected a proposal for independence out of hand. He did manage to liberalize the laws governing the colony with the Colonies Act of 1864, but the act was also a recognition that New England was unlikely to relinquish its overseas territories any time soon.
Hale's tenure also saw an increasing in tensions with the United States, as Hale made public speeches denouncing the practice of slavery and criticizing many influential American figures for their involvement in the slave trade. Souring relations with the United States, and Hale's growing anti-American sentiments, alienated him from many in his party, and Hale was forced from office in by his own party in 1867 and was replaced by his Navy Secretary Daniel Marcy
9. Daniel Marcy (Whig), 1867- 1884
Marcy represented the opinions of Whig elites who supported continued economic development, promoting New England on the world stage, expansion of the army and navy, and preserving the constitutional status quo.
Marcy oversaw the Navy and Army Act of 1869, which expanded both branches of the armed forces, drastically increasing the army and establishing a much larger permanent garrison in the New England West Indies. Further, the Ports and Naval Stations Act of 1870 authorized the establishment of a New England West Indies fleet which would be stationed out of Saint Croix. Marcy represented shifting Whig attitudes on foreign policy, deemphasizing close relations with the United States in favor of a stronger presence abroad and acceptance of more imperialist attitudes.
Marcy oversaw strong economic and industrial development in New England, and large-scale immigration from Ireland and Canada. To accommodate and assimilate these new populations, Marcy oversaw the passage and implementation of the Citizenship and Immigration Act of 1876, which protected the rights of immigrants while also creating a clear path to citizenship which mandated certain criteria designed to preserve political stability.
The growth of pro-imperialist attitudes in the Whig government was made visible in the late 1870s. In 1876, as France began pursuing a potential deal to allow the construction of a canal in Panama, the British government made overtures to Marcy's government suggesting that they enter into a joint venture to undercut the French and construct the canal themselves, giving New England control over what would be an important strategic checkpoint and giving them direct access to the Pacific. As part of the deal, New England would foot most of the cost while the two would split the provision of needed materials and expertise. After the canal was completed, control would pass to New England, and a treaty would ensure free British passage through the canal. The mission was ultimately successful, and Marcy's government undertook the project following the completion of a treaty with Columbia in 1879.
The costs of the project were steep, but British interest in the project allowed Marcy to pressure them into aiding New England in other imperial adventures while they helped finance the canal project. In 1882, New England and Britain managed to conquer and split African territory north of British South Africa as Germany prepared to do the same in territory just to the north, and a year later established New England South Africa. The imperial outpost was rather small and costly, but was seen by Marcy as an important foothold for New England outside of North America.
The costs of Marcy's budding imperialism were great, and by 1884 taxes and duties had increased sharply to pay for the military presence in Africa and the joint canal project. Marcy lost the general election that year as the public was increasingly frustrated with his spending and failure to address domestic issues, such as the growing Irish population and civil disorder in industrial centers.
Brother Jonathan:
10. George Frisbie Hoar (Conservative), 1884-1891
Hoar, continuing in the footsteps of Charles Sumner, helped transition to Tories into a modern party, creating a new Conservative party designed to respond to the needs of a changing New England. By the time of the party's victory in 1884, it was still finding its footing, and remained deeply divided on many issues.
Hoar was nevertheless able to pursue numerous reforms in his early years in office. He managed to curtail corruption in government, restraining the patronage power and modernizing the civil service through reform. Hoar also passed laws to curtail discrimination against immigrants and eliminated longstanding prohibitions on Catholics from serving in public office.
Most pressingly, Hoar was faced with a grave fiscal crisis, as Marcy's imperial adventures had led to heavy expenditures which were drastically outstripping revenues. Hoar sought to address the imbalance by increasing existing tariffs and extending them, while also ending the inflationary policies of his predecessor. Further, Hoar reduced military expenditure, and in 1889 signed a treaty of mutual defense with Great Britian which further increased collaboration on shipbuilding and research into new military technologies. He succeeded in bringing the economy back into balance, but his policies led to some short-term hardships.
In foreign affairs, Hoar was forced to steer a difficult course. Personally, he opposed imperialism, and attempted to no avail to convince his party to support democratic minded reforms in New England's colonial possessions. Hoar also was conflicted on the ongoing canal project, as he sought to reduce New England's commitments abroad but was also eager to maintain close relations with Britian. Part of the difficultly stemmed from the fact that, unlike his predecessor, Hoar was deeply suspicious of the United States, and viewed the nation as a potential threat. Hoar had tense relations with the United States throughout his tenure, and his introduction of new tariffs on American brought relations between the two countries to the most strained point in generations.
Hoar was ultimately unable to effectively navigate these contradictions, and his attempt to negotiate the sale of New England South Africa to Britian without consulting the cabinet ultimately proved to be a breaking point. Hoar was forced from office by more imperialist elements in the party in 1891.
11. Orville H. Platt (Conservative) 1891-1897
Platt succeeded Hoar as the preferred choice of the dominant imperialist faction within the Conservative party. Unlike Hoar, Platt strongly supported the canal project and the expansion of New England's imperial domain. To this end, Platt increased military spending and redoubled efforts in the canal zone, and in 1894 the Panama Canal was opened, and the canal zone placed under the authority of New England. Only two years later, in 1896, Platt's government led New England into war with Spain over Puerto Rico and Cuba, presenting New England as a civilizing force which would bring order to Spain's revolution-ridden territories in the new world. The war went well for New England, and by 1897 Spain's colonial possessions in the Caribbean were folded into New England's imperial domain.
On economic matters, Platt largely continued Hoar's policies of tight monetary control and tariffs for revenue and the protection of industry. Platt also reorganized the nation's finances and established a modern central bank- The Bank of New England. Platt also continued to adopt a pro-British foreign policy, and was noted to have a warm personal correspondence with many leaders in British society, including Disraeli and Queen Victoria.
Platt's Conservatives narrowly lost their majority at the general election of 1897 as labor agitation and ethnic strife became acute issues in urban areas, issues which Platt was generally seen as unable to deal with well. A Liberal/Reformist coalition managed to form a government, even as the Conservatives remained the largest party, though many more progressive members defected after the new government was formed.
12. William E. Chandler (Reformist), 1897- 1898
Chandler led a rather brief and unhappy government. A former Conservative who had become a leader within the Reformist party, it was hoped that Chandler could help to hold together the Liberal-Reformist alliance while also presenting its policies to the broadest audience. Instead, Chandler clashed with many in his own party on numerous issues, from tariffs to immigration. Chandler, though initially supportive of expanding naturalization services and providing services to immigrants, soon turned and began arguing for harsh restrictions on immigration. Further, though his government managed to lower tariffs and loosen the money supply, the government was torn between those who were hesitant to pursue such a policy, those that favored it, and yet further still those in the Liberal party proper, led by Edward Atkinson, who wanted to go farther and abolish the Bank of New England. Tensions between imperialists and anti-imperialists also rocked the government, and very little was accomplished. The government fell after just over a year in office.
13. Orville H. Platt (Conservative), 1898-1905
Platt returned to office after the chaos of the Liberal-Reformist government determined to correct the course of the nation. He agreed to limited reforms designed to help the urban ethnic poor, including a new anti-discrimination bill, but also passed harsh new immigration limits and oversaw passage of the Policing Act of 1900 which sought to organize and better fund police departments in urban centers to deal with immigrant communities.
Platt increased tariffs and restored the tight money policy he had helped champion. Further, he made a state visit to Ottawa in 1901, and gave speech calling for closer Canada-New England relations. Platt also passed the Navy Act of 1902, which called for a modernization and expansion of the New England Navy, as well as the creation of a new port in Cuba. Platt also sent more soldiers to New England's Caribbean colonies to deal with ongoing revolts there.
Platt died in office in 1905, and was succeeded by his close ally Nelson W. Aldrich.
Brother Jonathan:
14. Nelson Aldrich (Conservative), 1905-1906
Aldrich's brief tenure in office was marked by a continuation of the policies of his predecessor and close ally Orville H. Platt. The most notable act of his short-lived government was the Revenue Act of 1905 which reduced tariffs on Canadian goods and raw material while increasing rates on American finished goods. The Conservatives lost the 1906 General Election to the now reorganized and rejuvenated Reformists.
15. Robert P. Bass (Reformist), 1906-1910
Under the leadership of former Conservative MP Robert P. Bass, the son of immigrants from the United States, the Reformists and Liberal government led by Bass managed to be much more efficient than the one that had been formed in 1897-1898. Bass and other party leaders, recalling the fracture of the previous government, avoided taking strong positions on foreign policy issues (for which later historians would often critique his government) and instead focused on broadly popular domestic reforms which united the various factions and parties in government. The Anti-Trust and Competition Act of 1907 which placed restrictions on trusts and monopolies, the Railway Regulations Act 0f 1908 which created new safety standards for railway construction and operation, the Foodstuffs Act which empowered state and local government to inspect facilities which prepared food and regulate them, and the Revenue Act of 1909 which reduced tariffs on all goods, were all passed without much discord within the government. The government also managed to pass liberalizations of naturalization and voting laws, allowing many immigrants to finally become citizens and register to vote for the first time.
Bass was personally a very effective party leader, but he was tarnished by accusations of being a "crypto-American," by virtue of his being born in the United States and a policy which sought to promote free trade with the United States. Exhausted be such attacks and the work of passing such a robust legislative agenda, Bass stood down in 1910, and the Reformist Party was dissolved and largely merged into the Liberals.
16. James Curley (Liberal), 1910-1914
Seeking to appeal to newly naturalized Irish voters, the Liberal unexpectedly selected James Curley to be their next leader and to succeed Robert P. Bass as Prime Minister. Curley, the son of Irish immigrants, was brash and colorful and managed to win the 1910 General Election for the liberals with a strong mandate, calling for more regulations to protect workers and more spending on programs to help the poor.
Early on, Curley did indeed pursue these priorities, and managed to pass both new labor regulations and a workman's compensation law. He also sought to expand public transportation, providing funds for states and local governments to create rail networks for public use. Curley's government, however, was also notoriously corrupt, and many of its public works projects turned into windfalls to important friends and allies. Curley also alienated many by his attacks on "Anglo-Protestant power" and a time when Anglo-Protestant New Englanders where a vital part of the Liberal Party. Curley, in many respects, represented the venting of Irish and other immigrant Catholic New Englanders who had been politically frustrated, and his reform agenda was often accompanied by brash and angry attacks against the wealthy and well-established.
It was not his populism which forced Curley from office, however, but the First World War. Curley was adamantly opposed to any New England involvement in the war, and actively spoke against British interests in the conflict. Curley had long antagonized the British, and relations under his leadership and become deeply strained. Diplomatic problems only got worse as Curley suggested he was actually supporting the Germans in the cause, and also expressed his support for Irish independence. These indiscretions finally proved too much, and Liberal elites finally forced Curley from office in November 1914.
17. Andrew James Peters (Liberal), 1914-1915
Peters was named leader of the Liberals, and was faced with the daunting task of preventing the party from fracturing on the lines of a growing division between Catholic, Anti-British members and Protestant, more pro-British members. He proved largely unsuccessful, and the only action of note Peters undertook, under unrelenting press pressure and faced by treaty obligations, was to enter the First World War on the side of the Entente in December of 1914. The decision split the Liberal party and the country, and was met with rioting in many Catholic and immigrant areas.
Without a real majority, Peters limped along as Prime Minister until 1915, when the Conservatives managed to win a landslide victory and created a "National Government," which Peters had refused to do.
Brother Jonathan:
18. Henry Cabot Lodge (Conservative), 1915-1924
Lodge formed a national government following the 1915 general election, seeking to include within his government all factions of the Conservative party, moderate reformers and liberals, and pro-imperial elements in Parliament. He was opposed by a group of opposition Liberals led by James Curley, who worked in close coloration with the budding Labor Party.
The National Government deepened New England's involvement in the war in Europe, sending just over half a million men to serve on the Western Front and using its navy to engage in anti-U boat campaigns. Some 50,000 New Englanders dies in the conflict, and another nearly 200,000 were wounded. Public sentiment on the war was deeply divided, and governments use of conscription prompted riots in some urban areas. These were suppressed with force, and the 1916 Public Order and Security Act drastically restricted the ability of citizens to criticize the war.
Lodge's government was influential in helping build public opinion in the United States for Entente cause. Lodge made an official visit to Washington D.C. in 1916, the first trip to Washington of a sitting Prime Minister of New England and personally spoke with numerous important figures in the United States, helping to sway opinion towards the British and New England positions in the conflict. Lodge's interventions were seen as key to finally convincing the United States to declare war after a series of hostile German actions against the United States in 1918.
By 1919, the Germans had been battered, and the arrival of American troops proved decisive. Lodge traveled to France and led the New England negotiating team, generally siding with the British on most major matters. One notable feature was that the resulting deal gave New England control over German East Africa.
After the war, Lodge sought to parlay New England's participation into a springboard for even great global standing. He helped organize a League of Nations which New England joined, and in the demobilization that followed the war he kept New England's army at a much larger size than it had been before. Lodge also expanded the market for New England's manufactured goods in Europe, and deepened ties between European and New England businesses.
In the 1920 general election, the national government was dissolved, and the Conservatives won a majority. Lodge focused this new government on promoting social stability at home and increasing New England's prestige abroad. New England's economy benefited from the ravages of war in Europe, as it stepped in to help fill gaps in the market left by Europe. Lodge controversially sought to encourage immigration from large cities to New England's positions abroad, a policy generally seen as designed to reduce the Catholic population which was increasingly growing restless and agitating for further democratic reform, a pro-US foreign policy, and greater economic support.
While increasing New England's standing in the World, Lodge did oversee a period of heightened tensions with the United States, as the American public increasingly came to see him as an agent of British influence who had conspired to help drag the US into the war and spread entente propaganda. Such sentiments were pivotal in the election of Hiram Johnson to the presidency, and his populist government enjoyed increasingly cool relations with New England. Lodge also angered some Americans by encouraging Catholic immigration to New York, a policy which was countered by new immigration controls the United States passed in 1922. Lodge's government also saw the first major increase in tariffs on American goods in several decades, passing the Revenue Act of 1923, which substantially hindered trade between the two North American powers.
At the same time, Lodge promoted closer ties with Britain and Canada. King George V visited New England in 1922, and Lodge articulated support for British imperial and foreign policy. He also sought to negotiated new arms control treaties and hosted the Boston Conference to that end. He died in office in 1924.
19. Porter H. Dale (Conservative), 1924-1929
Lodge's "Vermont Deputy" and a key figure in his cabinet was appointed to be Prime Minister on Lodge's death by Protector of Liberties Charles Francis Adams III. Dale called an election shortly after his appointment, and won another majority mandate, thus starving off growing intraparty challenges to his leadership. Dale sought to continue the approach of his predecessor. He did attempt to mend relations with the United States, reducing trade barrier with the Tariff Reform Act of 1925 and hosting a Congressional delegation in Hartford Connecticut.
Dale was generally an uninspired leader, and his time in office saw growing industrial strife and continued tensions between the Catholic and Protestant community in New England. His government refused to make naturalization easier or to eliminate the poll tax. Through the Labor Relations Act of 1927 the government did encourage the creation of private charities and societies to provide support for the unemployed, the government remained hostile to social spending and the creation of new economic regulations.
The government's failure to address growing economic distress ultimate proved to be its undoing, as economic crisis racked New England in the late 1920s. The Dale government introduced some limited relief, but also used force to break up unruly labor action in major urban centers. Desire for economic relief and frustration with the seemingly inert government helped oust them in the 1929 election.
20. David I. Walsh (Liberal), 1929-1931
The 1929 election produced a decidedly divided result, and the Liberals managed to govern only with the confidence and supply support of the Labor Party which was rising quickly, and the occasional support of the new and relatively small Social Credit Party.
Walsh managed to achieve little, as the parties in his coalition diverged wildly on some issues and he refused to form a formal coalition. He was able to host a Second Boston Arms Control Conference, which resulted in an agreement which saw New England reduce the size of its navy. Further, Walsh passed after some internal debates the Wage Act of 1930, creating a minimum wage for New England. He also introduced a more progressive tax system with an emphasis on taxing the income of high earners and reduced tariffs across the board with the Revenue Reform Act. Walsh also sought to reduce New England's spending on imperial administration and convened a committee to consider the future of its possessions.
Ultimately, Walsh's government fell on the question of expanding social spending and welfare, as Walsh and the Liberal cabinet opposed the attempt of the Labor party and its allies to create programs to support the unemployed and create government jobs programs. Though Walsh personally was somewhat converted on the issues, his Cabinet was opposed, and the government failed to maintain Labor's support.
21. James Curley (Reconstruction), 1931-1934
Leading a coalition of left-wing Liberals, his own dissident 'True Liberals,' and the majority of the Labor Party, Curley returned to office after over 15 years with a coalition dedicated to enacting measures that the mainstream Liberals and Conservatives both opposed. Curley's government passed the Social Security Act of 1931, providing supplemental wages to the unemployed, the Transportation and Infrastructure Act expanding funding for municipal public transportation and the creation of several major new roadways across New England, the Franchise Reform Act of 1933 which ended poll taxes, enshrined one person one vote, and expanded voting rights to all New Englanders over the age of 18 regardless of gender. Curley financed these projects by increasing income taxes.
Curley's government, after this flurry of successes, stalled out and was dominated by infighting and constant rebalancing as he sought to maintain his own position. Defections back to the Liberals and to the Independent Social Democratic Party from the opposite ends of his coalition both brought his majority near the brink of collapse. Ultimately, his attempt to extend the maximum time between elections from five years to seven and his personal corruption proved to be his downfall, as the Labor party finally ended its support for the government in 1934, forcing an election.
22. Joseph B. Ely (National Union), 1934-1938
Ely, formerly a leading figure in Walsh's Liberal government, broke from Walsh's policy as leader and pursued an active alliance with a moderate faction within the Conservative Party and sought to roll back some of the more radical elements of the Reconstructionist agenda that Curley's government had pursued. Liberals dominated Ely's cabinet, and he sought to reduce spending and return New England to fiscal balance.
His policies proved controversial, as unemployment remained high, and spending promised for public works projects were reduced and, in some cases, scrapped altogether. Ely also excited controversy for reducing the size of the civil service and scrapping a plan to expand funding to local hospitals. Ely also became a strong supporter of a more isolationist foreign policy, embodied in Foreign Secretary (and Former Prime Minister) David Walsh's avoidance of European issues and the expressed desire of the government to work toward self-government for increasingly restless imperial possessions.
The persistent impact of unemployment ultimately proved fatal for the government, and dissent from Conservative members of the government forced Ely to call in election in 1938, in which his National Union Liberals were handed a major blow.
1938 General Election
300 Seats in the New England House of Commons
151 Seats needed for a Majority
Labor (Theodore Green, MP for Providence Blackstone)- 138 Seats
Conservative (Henry Keyes, MP for Haverhill and Piermont)- 84 Seats
Liberal (Charles F. Hurley, MP for Boston Church Green)- 39 Seats
National Union Liberals (Joseph B. Ely, MP for Westfield)- 31 Seats
Workingmens' League (James Curley, MP for Boston City Point)- 5 Seats
Others- 3 Seats
Labor+Liberal Majority of 54
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