A Royal America

[Vosem]

The Constitutional Convention

The Articles of Confederation had widely come to be regarded as a failure when the Constitutional Convention met in 1788. The one state which remained loyal to them was Rhode Island, which refused to even send delegates to Philadelphia. The union seemed to be coming apart at the seams.

Immediately, two plans saw fit to emerge. They were known as the Virginia plan, which included a powerful legislature, elected proportionally, and a less powerful executive; the New Jersey plan, was similar, but allowed for a multi-person executive, and for each state to have one vote in the legislature.

A third plan known as the South Carolina plan also came to be, a blend between the two¹. There would be a lower house, elected proportionally, and an upper house, which consisted of four members, ‘one per region’; it also allowed for a chief executive, elected by the legislature.

The Convention was deadlocked between the three possibilities. Meanwhile, as it proceeded, events were also going on in foreign lands…

The French Revolution occurred, and a government had finally been decided. A one-house legislature, elected by the people, known as the National Assembly, was created; also existing was a King, who had few powers. As their fellow revolutionaries accepted the idea of a monarchy, slowly the Convention in Philadelphia also began to turn towards the monarchy…

Alexander Hamilton brought forward the so-called ‘New York Plan’. It consisted of a system similar to the French one, with a one-house legislature elected proportionally, known as the House of Commons, with a King, elected by the House of Commons for life. However, all this meant was that by October, the Convention was deadlocked four ways.

The main break for the New York Plan came when Edmund Randolph, a delegate from Virginia and the creator of the Virginia Plan, endorsed the New York Plan as a good idea after all. Although the Convention was still deadlocked, it was clear at this point that the New York Plan had an edge over the New Jersey and South Carolina Plans.

By the end of October, as the Convention was planning to adjourn, Roger Sherman, a delegate from Connecticut, proposed the so-called ‘Connecticut Compromise’. The main problem the New Jersey supporters had with the New York Plan was the fact that it’s legislature was proportional, and so the small states would have little power. Sherman brought forward the idea of an ‘upper house’ for the New York Plan; a so-called Royal Council, which would have one member from each state, elected for life by the state’s delegation. Although the vast majority of legislative duties remained with the House of Commons, the Royal Council would advise the elected King, and enter states into the union.

Although some supporters of the New Jersey Plan remained, the Connecticut Compromise was good enough for most of its supporters, and by the end of October 1788, the plan had the support of over 50% of state delegations. The results were announced to the public.

Immediately, a Revolutionary leader, the former Governor of Virginia Patrick Henry, who had “smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending towards the monarchy,” came out against the Constitution. In order to increase its general popularity among the American public, Alexander Hamilton, James Monroe, and John Jay wrote the Federalist Papers, a document in support of the Constitution. The papers generally advocated the Constitution that had been agreed upon in Philadelphia was, all in all, the best plan for the country.

In corroboration with a Pennsylvanian known as Samuel Bryan, McHenry wrote the Republican Papers, which generated less publicity and were less effective than the Federalist ones. Nevertheless, the anti-Federalist papers popularized the idea of a Bill of Rights.

By October of 1789, all of the states which had been present at the Convention had ratified the new Constitution. Elections were scheduled.

¹This is OTL; such a plan was, in fact, created by Charles Pinckney; however, it was not seriously considered. This is the main POD; it is, so the Convention is deadlocked three ways, not two.

[Vosem]

The Election of 1789

Of the 13 colonies which had participated in the rebellion against Britain earlier in the decade, 12 had sent delegates to the Philadelphia Convention. These twelve were the only participants in the election of 1789, as Rhode Island instead chose to boycott the election.

Quickly, two parties emerged: the Federalists, who supported the form of government that the Constitution outlined, and were guided by the Federalist Papers; and the Republicans, who supported a weaker executive branch, and a weaker government in general. The writers of the Republican Papers, Patrick McHenry and Samuel Bryan, both declined to run for the House of Commons, and so the party found itself in the leadership of Thomas Jefferson.

The Federalist Party won the election.


 
Federalist (John Adams): 34
Republican (Thomas Jefferson): 25


The first business of the new Parliament was selecting the new King. Although 13 Republicans did not vote for a King, the lone candidate, Revolutionary War hero George Washington, easily cleared the 30-vote mark necessary for a majority.


Royal Election, 1791:
George Washington 46
Not Voting 13


King George I of America


Soon afterward, the business of electing a Prime Minister occurred. Every single M.P. voted. All 34 Federalists unanimously selected John Adams. Although most Republicans selected informal party leader Thomas Jefferson (R-Virginia), some ‘moderate Republicans’, understanding their vote would not truly impact the results, wrote in George Clinton (R-New York).

Prime Ministerial Election, 1791:
John Adams 34
Thomas Jefferson 17
George Clinton 8


1st Prime Minister of the United States, John Adams

With that, King George I and Prime Minister John Adams were inaugurated. The business of the 1st Parliament could begin.

[Vosem]

Before someone says 'needs maps'...can someone help me with maps? In the 1789 election, all Thirteen Colonies but Rhode Island participated...majority-Federalist delegations include all New England, NY, NJ, PA, and DE; majority-Republican delegations include MD, VA, GA, and the Carolinas.

Thank you for your help, and thank you for reading my timeline.

[MASHED POTATOES. VOTE!]

Keep it coming

[Хahar 🤔]

All Ministers, including the Prime Minister, would be appointed by the King. At the time, however, the dominant strain of thought in England was that all the King's Ministers were equal, and thus that a Prime Minister would be a perversion of the Constitution.

I think I can cook up a map in the morning.

[Vosem]

All Ministers, including the Prime Minister, would be appointed by the King. At the time, however, the dominant strain of thought in England was that all the King's Ministers were equal, and thus that a Prime Minister would be a perversion of the Constitution.

They want a strong central government but no strong central character - therefore, there are two: the weaker King, who is very difficult to remove (once he's elected, he can only be removed for 'treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors'), and the stronger Prime Minister, on the other hand, can be replaced by the House of Commons at its' whim.

A map would be nice indeed.

[ej2mm15]

I don't think you can get a map on here until 1840. You could try looking on google. Otherwise, great so far.

[Vosem]

The 1st Parliament: 1789 – 1791

At the very immediate beginning of the 1st Parliament, a crisis occurred. The Constitution had merely stated that the House of Commons would be elected by districts, none of whom were to transcend state boundaries and all of whom were to have an approximately equal population. These guidelines had all been fulfilled in the 1789 election.

However, the Constitution had never mentioned exactly how often the elections were to take place, and this became one of the very first subjects debated in the House of Commons. The Republicans believed elections should be held often – Jefferson called for elections ‘every three years’ – while the Federalists seemed content to be similar to the British, as Alexander Hamilton (Federalist-New York) called for elections every seven years¹.

George Clinton (Republican-New York) proposed the so-called ‘Five-Year Compromise’, in which elections would be held every five years. This proposal received widespread support from the House of Commons. However, it was never even brought to a vote.

In a meeting between the Prime Minister, John Adams, and the Opposition Leader, Thomas Jefferson, the two parties, agreed to a compromise – the Republicans would support Adams’ seven-year proposal as the 1st Amendment to the United States Constitution (though the Amendment did stipulate that, upon agreement of the Prime Minister and the King, or in the absence of the Prime Minister², an election could be called earlier), while the Federalists would support Jefferson’s Eleven-Point³ Bill of Rights. The Twelve Amendments are brought in front of the House of Commons the next day. The vote is never unanimous, and not even one Amendment passes 50 – however, all garner the 40 votes necessary for approval.

First Amendment to the United States Constitution – The House of Commons shall hold elections every seven years, though in the absence of a Prime Minister, or with the consent of the Prime Minister and King, elections may also be scheduled.

Second Amendment to the United States Constitution – The House of Commons shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Third Amendment to the United States Constitution - A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution - No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution - The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution - No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution - In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.

Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution - In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution - Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution - The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution - No law varying the compensation for the services of the Members of Parliament, shall take effect, until an election of Parliament shall have intervened.

[Vosem]

One of the few Republicans to speak out against any of the Amendments to the Bill of Rights was Aaron Burr, the New York Attorney General, who famously criticized the Twelfth Amendment by noting that it meant that Parliament was an unpaid position until the next elections. In response, Parliament hastily passed a law paying itself ($6 per session⁴) before passing the Twelfth Amendment.

After this, Parliament established the Department of State (which would be responsible for the United States’ international relations), the Department of War (which would be responsible for the operation and maintenance of the U.S. Army), the Department of the Navy (which would be responsible for the operation and maintenance (and building) of the as-yet nonexistent U.S. Navy), and the Department of the Treasury (which would print and mint money and collect federal taxes).

Adams nominated John Jay (Federalist-New York) for Minister of State; Timothy Pickering (Federalist-Massachusetts) for Minister of War; and Alexander Hamilton (Federalist-New York) for Minister of the Treasury. However, his nominee for Minister of the Navy hit a slight snag.
Adams had nominated Benjamin Stoddert, a rich businessman who had bought the area near the Potomac (where the capital of the United States was being built) and then sold it to the federal government. However, a precedent had been established at this point that Members of Cabinet had to also be Members of Parliament, something Stoddert was not. However, Stoddert ran in (and won) a Maryland by-election, entered the House of Commons, and was roundly approved Minister of the Navy.


John Jay (Federalist-New York), Minister of State


Timothy Pickering (Federalist-Massachusetts), Minister of War


Alexander Hamilton (Federalist-New York), Minister of the Treasury


Benjamin Stoddert (Federalist-Maryland), Minister of the Navy

Adams then proceeded to pass the Judiciary Act of 1789. It established a Supreme Court (as required by the Constitution), with a Chief Justice and five Associate Justices (appointed by the King); it established circuit courts, which had jurisdiction over several states, appointed by the Prime Minister; it established the position Attorney General (who would be part of the Cabinet, and so appointed by the Prime Minister), who would argue cases for the Federal Government, and it established so-called district attorneys, who would argue cases for the federal government in front of circuit courts, and would be appointed by the Attorney General.

Adams appointed Edmund Randolph (Federalist-Virginia) to the position of Attorney General.
Washington nominated John Rutledge (the former Governor of South Carolina) to the position of Chief Justice; for his Associate Justices, he nominated William Cushing (a prominent Massachusetts judge who had been instrumental in that state’s ratification of the Constitution), Thomas Johnson (the former governor of Maryland), James Wilson (a prominent Pennsylvania attorney who had signed the Declaration of Independence, had been one of the key figures in Pennsylvania’s ratification of the Constitution, and had also written a Constitution for the state of Pennsylvania), John Blair (a prominent Virginia judge who had also served as Governor of that state), and James Iredell (Federalist-North Carolina, and one of the key figures in that state’s ratification of the Constitution).


Edmund Randolph (Federalist-Virginia), Attorney General


John Rutledge, Chief Justice


William Cushing, Associate Justice


Thomas Johnson, Associate Justice


James Wilson, Associate Justice


John Blair, Associate Justice


James Iredell, Associate Justice

After that, the House of Commons debated and passed the Census Act of 1790, which regulated how the Census should be carried out. The Census of 1790 soon occurred; it determined that approximately 4 million people lived in the United States, of which about 700,000 were slaves; it determined the five largest cities of the nascent country, in descending order, were New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore.

Soon afterward, Rhode Island asked for U.S. annexation. The Royal Council let it in as the 13th state with little debate.

In 1791, the House of Commons established the First Bank of the United States, which would oversee the financial activities of the United States government. The split here was not by party, but by region; the Bank was based off of similar state banks in New England, and was strongly supported by Northern merchants; in the South, the main industry was agriculture, which did not require a strong bank, and it was felt that the Bank would be an infringement on state’s rights.

Next up: the next several years!

[Cassius Dio]

I like it alot. Keep it coming.

[Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey]

I like it alot. Keep it coming.

[Хahar 🤔]

[Dancing with Myself]

Great, keep it coming

[Vosem]

Thank you! This is exactly what I need. I'll edit it in.

[Psychic Octopus]

Keep it coming. This is a great timeline so far.

[Vosem]

The 1st Parliament (cont.): 1791 - 1795

Upon his appointment Minister of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton set right to work. One of his first proposals was the so-called Tariff Act of 1791. Hamilton was anxious to create the tariff as a major source of government revenue, and the Act did just that, putting a tax (between 5-10 percent, depending on the value of the item – the Act was very specific) on importing an item into the United States, and a tax on exportation. Again, the Act (which favored Northern merchants) fell mostly on regional lines, as Southern Federalists opposed to the act were led by Thomas Pinckney (Fed-South Carolina), while Northern Republicans in support were led by George Clinton (Rep-New York). The Act passed by a surprisingly narrow margin, 32-27.

Hamilton also proposed the Whiskey Act, which levied an excise tax on whiskey. Although some Republicans opposed the measure, it passed fairly easily, 42-17.

In the period of 1791 – 1792, several changes occurred in the map of the United States. The Territory South of the River Ohio¹ seceded from North Carolina; the Republic of Vermont asked for annexation into the Union and was admitted as the 14th state by a vote of 11-2; and Kentucky broke off of Virginia, asking to become its own state; the Royal Council approved its request by a unanimous 13-0 and it became the Union’s 15th state.

In 1792, the Postal Service Act passed, establishing the U.S. Post Office and the position of Postmaster General, to which Adams nominated Samuel Osgood, who was not a Member of Parliament. Although Osgood was a resident of New York, he was nevertheless forced to run in a Massachusetts by-election, which he won, and was inaugurated as a Federalist Member from Massachusetts.


Samuel Osgood (Federalist-Massachusetts), Postmaster General

In order to regulate coinage (most cities had simply been minting their own coins), Alexander Hamilton introduced the Coinage Act of 1792, much of the text of which had been written by David Rittenhouse, Treasurer of Pennsylvania. It introduced the following coins:

•   Milles (1.1 pennyweights of copper)²
•   Half Cents (5.5 pennyweights of copper; 5 milles)
•   Cents (11 pennyweights of copper; 10 milles)
•   Half Dismes (20.8 grain of standard silver; 5 cents)³
•   Dismes (41.6 grain of standard silver; 10 cents)
•   Quarter Dollars (104 grain of standard silver; 25 cents)
•   Half Dollars (208 grain of standard silver; 50 cents)
•   Dollars (416 grain of standard silver; 10 dismes)
•   Quarter Eagles (67.5 grain of standard gold; 2 dollars, 50 cents)
•   Half Eagles (135 grain of standard gold; 5 dollars)
•   Eagles (270 grain of standard gold; 10 dollars)

The Militia Act of 1792, which was largely the result of the efforts of the King himself, provided states for the right to organize a militia, which could be called by the King, Prime Minister, or Minister of War in the event of rebellion.

1793 was a mostly quiet year, but it was also the year the Supreme Court heard the case Chisholm vs. Georgia, when Alexander Chisholm, the executor of the estate of Robert Farquhar, sued the state of Georgia over goods that Farquhar had supplied to the state during the Revolutionary War, the value of which had never been repaid. Chisholm argued his own case; the defendant, the state of Georgia, refused to appear due to being a ‘sovereign’ state. Chisholm was a British citizen. Thomas Johnson was not present at the case due to his poor health. Wilson, Cushing, and Blair issued opinions in favor of Chisholm; Rutledge and Iredell ruled in favor of Georgia, and so Chisholm won the suit, 3-2. In response, Republican Georgia Representative James Gunn introduced the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibited U.S. courts from hearing the suit of someone who was not a citizen of the United States, or from a citizen using the courts to sue someone who was not a citizen. The Amendment passed the House of Commons, and was quietly confirmed by state legislatures the next year.

Soon after, Johnson’s poor health forced him to step down from the Supreme Court. Ironically, Johnson would continue to live until the year 1818, when he died at the age of 85⁴. To replace him, King George would nominate William Paterson, the Governor of New Jersey and a strong Federalist. Although officially nonpartisan, King George was increasingly affiliated with the Federalists. When asked by Opposition Leader Thomas Jefferson about this, George replied that he would ‘support the people’s elected majority.’


William Paterson, Associate Justice

Of course, the decision in Chisholm vs. Georgia, and the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment begged a definition for the term ‘citizen’, something which had never been enshrined in law. Debate began on the Citizenship Act of 1794. It passed easily. It classified citizen as ‘anyone born in the United States as the child of a citizen’, and that a non-citizen seeking citizenship could get a ‘permit’ in the local court; should this person have remained ‘well disposed to good order’, he would become a naturalized citizen within 3 years⁵.

Meanwhile, the Whiskey Act which had been passed several years earlier was growing unpopular. In many western, frontier areas of the country, people had begun to refuse to pay. When a U.S. marshal arrived in the Monongahela Valley to collect the tax, he was attacked.

Under the leadership of one David Bradford, a local attorney, much of western Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia rose up against the government. In response, as per the Militia Act, the state of Pennsylvania raised the militia to attack rebel strongholds. Although King George himself wanted to command the troops, cooler voices prevailed and he stayed in the capital. Command was given to the lesser-known General John Neville.

Neville immediately attacked one of the centers of the rebellion, Bedford, Pennsylvania; easily defeating the poorly-organized rebels, Neville proceeded to do clean-up; the rebellion was over by New Year 1795.

When news of the rebellion reached the government in Columbia (the new capital⁶ was originally to be named Washington, but King George flatly refused), the Republicans immediately began pushing for a repeal; however, the Federalists, loathe to admit an error, opposed the plan. Repeal succeeded 33-27; however, by the time the news reached Monongahela, Neville had already won at Bedford.

It is difficult to gauge what effect the rebellion had on early electoral politics; after all, the Republicans were certainly the party more associated with the rebellion, yet the Federalists had been the ones to pass the Whiskey Act, a huge, unpopular failure.

Meanwhile, Indian forces and the U.S. were locked in a struggle over control of the Northwest Territory. American forces, under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne faced off in a final conflict against the Natives, under the command of Blue Jacket (or Weyapiersenwah). The battle was an overwhelming U.S. victory, which cemented American control of Northwest Territory, and ended hostilities in the region for over 15 years.

This spate of military activity reminded the U.S. that building up a navy was, in fact, very necessary. Stoddert had acted largely like a backbencher through most of the 1st Parliament (with the pay of a Member of Cabinet, of course). However, not wanting a backlash against him, Stoddert proposed the Naval Act of 1795 in early January of that year. The U.S. had not had a navy since it had sold the Alliance in 1785. The act commissioned the building of six frigates – the United States, the Constellation, the Constitution, the Prime Minister, the Congress, and the Chesapeake.

The act proved to be impressive foresight. In February of that year, the U.S. Minister to France, Gouverneur Morris (a Federalist), was killed by order of Maximilien Robespierre. Congress declared war on France (though as the nations were separated by thousands of miles), this meant little. As the country moved towards the Federalists in the aftermath of Morris’s death (the Republicans had always been friendly toward the now-enemy Revolutionary France), Adams sensed he could garner electoral clout from this event, and called for elections.

During the lame-duck period of the 1st Parliament, the U.S. and Britain (now allies against Revolutionary France), signed the so-called Jay Treaty, as it was mostly written by the American Minister of State, John Jay. The Treaty required the British to vacate their posts in American Northwest Territory, increased trade between the two nations, and set a boundary between the two nations⁷. Before signing, Jay asked Parliament to approve, which it did, 33-25 on party lines (as he was in London at the time, Jay could not vote). With that, Jay signed the treaty.

Next up: How did France possibly get to the point where they kill innocent foreign ambassadors? After that: the election of 1795!



¹OTL Tennessee.
²1 pennyweight = about 1½ grams.
³1 grain = 1/16 grams.
⁴Johnson’s resignation is as OTL – he lived even longer in real life. I shortened his life slightly, as his Supreme Court service is slightly longer ATL.
⁵OTL, naturalized citizens are allowed to become King, Prime Minister, or a Member of Cabinet (or, obviously, a Member of Parliament). Nevertheless, there is often suspicion against naturalized citizens, and they are rarely elected to Parliament (though it occurs every so often).
⁶Same site as OTL.
⁷The OTL one.

[Vosem]

Questions?  Comments?  Concerns?

Any feedback or comments (negative or positive) encourage me to do better and continue at this TL.

Also, I'm eager to answer any questions about what certain people are doing or how certain events occurred.

[Vazdul (Formerly Chairman of the Communist Party of Ontario)]

This is a great timeline. Keep it coming, please!

[Cassius Dio]

It's very good. Very colorful writing style.

[yougo1000]

I'm loving it

[Cassius Dio]

Also, I'm eager to answer any questions about what certain people are doing or how certain events occurred.

Is there any drastic difference in the diplomatic relations between Europe's Monarchies and the royal USA?

[Vosem]

The French Revolution

When King Louis XVI ascended to the French throne in 1774, the country was already in a financial crisis caused by its involvement (and loss) in the Seven Years’ War. Over the next ten or so years, France aided the Americans in their Revolution in North America, for little perceptible gain.

In 1789, the desperate King decided to convene the Estates-General, for the first time since 1614. There would be three Estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. Elections were held in the spring of 1789.

However, one of the main points of debate when the Estates gathered was how they should vote: should every delegate have one vote (in which case the Third Estate could narrowly outvote the other two combined, 610-591), or should every Estate have one vote (in which case the first two could outvote the Third Estate, 2-1)?

Simultaneously, all 610 members of the Third Estate took the so-called Tennis Court Oath, where they agreed to continue debate until France had a constitution.

After a long period of debate, on the 11th of July, 1789, in a 2-1 vote using the method it supported, the Estates-General announced that they would vote by estate, rather than by member. The outraged Third Estate split off from the Estates-General to form the National Assembly. The Assembly invited members of the other Estates to take part.

Around the same time, popular Finance Minister Jacques Necker asked the King to live according to a budget. He was fired.

When news of these two acts reached Paris, the city went into open rebellion. On the morning of the 14th of July, the rebels stormed the Bastille, a fortress, used as a jail and armory in Paris. All of the prisoners were released, and the weaponry and gunpowder were seized by the rebels. The governor, Bernard-René de Launay, – who, as the son of the previous governor, had actually been born in the Bastille – committed suicide.

Upon hearing of these actions, 151 members of the First Estate and 47 members of the Second Estate joined the National Assembly. Jean Sylvain Bailly was declared Mayor of Paris.

The Assembly then proceeded to form a Constitution. It provided for elections to the Assembly every three years; King Louis would get to maintain his title, but little executive power, which would be vested in the so-called President of the Assembly.

After the King had, reluctantly, signed the Constitution, the first parliamentary elections were held in mid-1791. Two political parties had been formed; the Feuillants, or moderates, and the Montagnards, the radicals. The Feuillants narrowly defeated the Montagnards in the election, 401-389. Antoine Barnave was selected President of the Assembly. However, the closely-divided Assembly was difficult to run, and Barnave called for elections in February of 1792.
On the outset, the Feuillants had the advantage. They were the incumbent – and still relatively popular – government.

One popular newspaper in Paris, the so-called Friend of the People, written by Jean-Paul Marat, was considered radical even by Montagnard standards. Its bloody imagery warned of counter-revolution. The newspaper’s last article warned of the following occurring should the Feuillants be reelected:

Five or six hundred heads would have guaranteed your freedom and happiness but a false humanity has restrained your arms and stopped your blows. If you don’t strike now, millions of your brothers will die, your enemies will triumph and your blood will flood the streets. They'll slit your throats without mercy and disembowel your wives. And their bloody hands will rip out your children’s entrails to erase your love of liberty forever.

Charlotte Corday visited him in March of 1792, claiming to have a list of enemies. Corday was invited into his home, where Marat was then bathing in herbal solution, something his doctors mandated he do virtually nonstop. There was no complicated plan: Corday simply drew an eight-inch knife concealed in her corset, and stabbed his chest, likely aiming for the heart. The knife pierced the ribs, perforated the right lung, and severed the aorta. Massive bleeding killed Marat in seconds.

The murder of Marat seemed to give credence to his warnings of counter-revolution. The Montagnards won an overwhelming victory against the Feuillants, 555-194. At Marat’s funeral, Jacques-Louis David – who was also the one who created the famous painting, The Death of Marat – compared Marat to Jesus. Like Jesus, Marat loved ardently the people, and only them. Like Jesus, Marat hated kings, nobles, priests, rogues, and like Jesus, he never stopped fighting against these plagues of the people.

With the victory of the Montagnards, Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre came to power. Robespierre immediately radicalized the government, as extremist ‘Marat Montagnards’, as they were called, held a majority in the chamber. King Louis was declared a traitor, and he and his family were jailed, and even given a last name, Capet.

The exact circumstances of Louis Capet’s escape from jail remain unknown to this day, but the most likely sequence of events was that one of the guards, a covert royalist, let Louis and his family go. Louis immediately fled the country to Austria. Robespierre declared war. Till 1795, the war remained largely a stalemate…till 1795.

Of course, there were also important political developments in France during these three years. Most Feuillants, such as Antoine Barnave, Alexandre de Lameth, and Adrian Duport, were executed. In fact, even Robespierre’s political allies, such as Georges Danton, were executed – Robespierre suspected Danton of wanting to overthrow him and take his position. Danton’s last words were to his executioner – “Don’t forget to show my head to the people. It’s well worth seeing.”

In 1795, the so-called Foreigners’ Night occurred, when Robespierre ordered the killing of nearly all of the foreigners in Paris, including the American ambassador, Governeur Morris, and the British ambassador, the Marquess Cornwallis. Nearly all of the nations of Europe declared war on the French Revolutionary Republic.

With France falling apart at the seams, Robespierre (and many of his associates) was killed by members of his own Montagnards, and replaced by Jean-François Rewbell.

Although elections were slated to be held in 1795, they never were, as France was in a ‘state of war’. Rewbell continued the war, and did largely significantly better than one would expect, largely due to the leadership of the Generals Lazare Hoche and Napoleon Bonaparte, who were becoming increasingly popular with the French public…

[Historico]

Nice snippet about the French Revolution...

[Vosem]

The Election of 1795

The winner of the election of 1795 had never really been in doubt. The Whiskey Rebellion had hurt both parties equally – some noted that largely Republicans had participated, while others blamed the Federalists for inciting it. However, the main issue in the 1795 election was the killing, in Paris, of the American Minister to France, Gouverneur Morris. Morris had been a fairly prominent Federalist, and his election incurred sympathy with the government.

Following the Census of 1790, the size of the House of Commons had been increased to 99 seats. During the race, the Supreme Court seats of John Rutledge and John Blair went vacant. King George promised to appoint members of whichever party won the election to the seats, increasing the stakes.

The results were preordained.



Federalist (John Adams) 56
Republican (Thomas Jefferson) 43

The map was very similar to that of 1789. Of the three new states, Kentucky voted Republican, while Vermont and Rhode Island chose the Federalists. Of the states which had also participated in 1789, only three switched sides: Maryland and South Carolina from Republican to Federalist, and Pennsylvania from Federalist to Republican.

John Adams was sworn in for another term as Prime Minister. George Washington nominated Oliver Ellsworth for Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (Rutledge's seat) and Samuel Chase to Blair’s seat.


Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice


Samuel Chase, Associate Justice

Adams kept all of the Ministers in Cabinet, except his Postmaster General Samuel Osgood, who had, instead of running for reelection, ran for (and won) a seat in the New York State Assembly that year. Adams nominated the Mayor of Savannah, Georgia, Joseph Habersham, to the position. Habersham was elected in a special and took office as the 2nd Postmaster General of the United States.


Joseph Habersham (Federalist-Georgia), Postmaster General

[Vosem]

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